Ischemic Optic Neuropathy.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Vision is often threatened or lost by acute ischemic damage to the optic nerves. Such pathology most often affects the anterior portion of the nerve and is visible on funduscopic examination. Ischemic optic neuropathy is associated with typical vascular risk factors and with one systemic disease in particular: giant cell arteritis (GCA). This article provides an overview of the three major classes of ischemic optic neuropathy, including information on risk factors, differential diagnosis, evaluation, and management. RECENT FINDINGS: Optical coherence tomography provides precise anatomic imaging in ischemic optic neuropathy, showing neural loss weeks before it is visible on examination. Refinements of optical coherence tomography reveal optic nerve microvasculature and may assist in understanding pathogenesis and verifying diagnosis. New diagnostic algorithms and cranial vascular imaging techniques help define the likelihood of GCA in patients with ischemic optic neuropathy. Finally, intraocular drug and biological agent delivery holds promise for nonarteritic ischemic optic neuropathy, whereas newer immunologic agents may provide effective steroid-sparing treatment for GCA. SUMMARY: It is essential to recognize ischemic optic neuropathy upon presentation, especially to determine the likelihood of GCA and the need for immediate steroid therapy. A broad differential diagnosis should be considered so as not to miss alternative treatable pathology, especially in cases with retrobulbar optic nerve involvement.

Multiple sclerosis: review of eye movement disorders and update of disease-modifying therapies.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: To review important eye movement disorders in multiple sclerosis (MS) and update the ophthalmologist on disease-modifying therapies in MS, from the perspective of expert neurologists. RECENT FINDINGS: A large study confirmed that eye movement abnormalities in MS can be commonly identified by bedside examination. Identifying such ocular motility disturbances can assist in the diagnosis and prognosis for patients with MS. Articles published on such agents as oral teriflunomide and the biologics, natalizumab and alemtuzumab, have defined emerging roles of these treatments in the management of MS. SUMMARY: Many patients with MS suffer from isolated or a combination of eye movement disorders. Understanding their ocular motility disturbance patterns can help diagnose MS and correlate with the progression of MS. Exciting advances in MS disease-modifying treatments have been developed. Patients have more options than ever before of injectable, infusion and oral therapies. The therapeutic efficacy in lowering relapse rates is counterbalanced by these drugs' side-effects.

Neuromyelitis optica.

Neuromyelitis optica (NMO) is a disabling inflammatory condition that targets astrocytes in the optic nerves and spinal cord. Neuro-ophthalmologists must be particularly aware of this disorder because about half of patients present as isolated unilateral optic neuritis months or years before a disease-defining and often crippling bout of myelitis. NMO is easily confused with multiple sclerosis because it is characterized by relapses that lead to stepwise accrual of deficits. The best predictor of conversion from optic neuritis to clinical definite NMO is the presence of a serum antibody to aquaporin-4 called NMO-IgG. However, this test is currently only about 75% sensitive. Suspicion of NMO should be high in patients who present with vision of light perception or worse or who are left with acuity of 20/50 or worse after optic neuritis and in those with simultaneous bilateral optic neuritis or recurrent attacks. Acute NMO relapses are generally treated with high-dose intravenous steroids, with plasma exchange often used as a rescue therapy for those who do not respond. Preventative strategies against relapses currently use broad-spectrum or selective B-lymphocyte immune suppression, but their use is based on small, generally uncontrolled studies. Hopefully, the future will bring more sensitive tools for defining risk and predicting outcome, as well as more targeted and effective forms of therapy.