ABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is the third leading cause of death worldwide and an important cause of death in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis on the prevalence of and risk factors for COPD in SSA.METHODS: We conducted a protocol-driven systematic literature search in MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL and Global Health, supplemented by a manual search of the abstracts from thoracic conference proceedings from 2017 to 2020. We did a meta-analysis of COPD prevalence and its association with current smoking.RESULTS: We identified 831 titles, of which 27 were eligible for inclusion in the review and meta-analysis. The population prevalence of COPD ranged from 1.7% to 24.8% (pooled prevalence: 8%, 95% CI 6-11). An increased prevalence of COPD was associated with increasing age, smoking and biomass smoke exposure. The pooled odds ratio for the effect of current smoking (vs. never smoked) on COPD was 2.20 (95% CI 1.62-2.99).CONCLUSION: COPD causes morbidity and mortality in adults in SSA. Smoking is an important risk factor for COPD in SSA, and this exposure needs to be reduced through the combined efforts of clinicians, researchers and policymakers to address this debilitating and preventable lung disease.
Subject(s)
Pulmonary Disease, Chronic Obstructive , Adult , Humans , Prevalence , Pulmonary Disease, Chronic Obstructive/epidemiology , Risk Factors , Smoke , Smoking/adverse effects , Smoking/epidemiologyABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: Adrenal insufficiency, a well recognised complication of treatment with oral corticosteroids, has been described in association with inhaled corticosteroid use in over 60 case reports. The risk of adrenal insufficiency in people prescribed an oral or inhaled corticosteroid in the general population is not known. A study was undertaken to quantify the association between adrenal insufficiency and oral and inhaled corticosteroid exposure. METHODS: A case-control study was performed using computerised general practice data from The Health Improvement Network. RESULTS: From a cohort of 2.4 million people, 154 cases of adrenal insufficiency and 870 controls were identified. There was a dose related increased risk of adrenal insufficiency in people prescribed an oral corticosteroid with an odds ratio of 2.0 (95% CI 1.6 to 2.5) per course of treatment per year. Adrenal insufficiency was associated with a prescription for an inhaled corticosteroid during the 90 day period before the diagnosis with an odds ratio of 3.4 (95% CI 1.9 to 5.9) and this effect was dose related (p for trend <0.001). After adjusting for oral corticosteroid exposure, this odds ratio was reduced to 1.6 (95% CI 0.8 to 3.2) although the dose relation remained (p for trend 0.036). CONCLUSION: People prescribed an oral or inhaled corticosteroid are at a dose related increased risk of adrenal insufficiency although the absolute risk is small. This analysis suggests that the increased risk in people prescribed an inhaled corticosteroid is largely due to oral corticosteroid exposure, but inhaled corticosteroids may have an effect when they are taken at higher doses.
Subject(s)
Adrenal Cortex Hormones/adverse effects , Adrenal Insufficiency/chemically induced , Administration, Inhalation , Administration, Oral , Adolescent , Adrenal Cortex Hormones/administration & dosage , Adult , Aged , Case-Control Studies , Child , Child, Preschool , Dose-Response Relationship, Drug , Female , Humans , Infant , Infant, Newborn , Male , Middle AgedABSTRACT
OBJECTIVE: To discuss the effects of inhaled corticosteroids on bone and their potential public health implications. DATA SOURCES: The MEDLINE and EMBASE databases were searched to identify articles published between 1966 and January 2004 with the following keywords in the title: inhaled corticosteroid, beclomethasone, budesonide, flunisolide, fluticasone, mometasone, triamcinolone plus bone, fracture, osteoporosis, osteocalcin, growth, or height. STUDY SELECTION: Key studies of adequate size and duration that allowed for potential confounding factors where required were selected. RESULTS: Inhaled corticosteroids are absorbed into the systemic circulation and therefore have the potential to cause adverse effects on bone. Several of the larger studies showed that inhaled corticosteroids cause a dose-related reduction in bone mineral density. Three cross-sectional studies found a dose-related increase in fractures in people taking an inhaled corticosteroid compared with controls. Prospective studies found a short-term reduction in growth velocity in children taking an inhaled corticosteroid, although target adult height is usually achieved. CONCLUSION: Since osteoporotic fracture is common in elderly patients and up to 5% of the population in more developed countries take an inhaled corticosteroid, these findings have public health implications. Strategies are needed to reduce the systemic effects of inhaled corticosteroids.
