Assessment of barriers to cancer screening and interventions implemented to overcome these barriers in 27 Latin American and Caribbean countries.

There is a gap in the understanding of the barriers to cancer screening participation and complying with downstream management in the Community of Latin American and Caribbean states (CELAC). Our study aimed to assess barriers across the cancer screening pathway from the health system perspective, and interventions in place to improve screening in CELAC. A standardized tool was used to collect information on the barriers across the screening pathway through engagement with the health authorities of 27 member states of CELAC. Barriers were organized in a framework adapted from the Tanahashi conceptual model and consisted of the following dimensions: availability of services, access (covering accessibility and affordability), acceptability, user-provider interaction, and effectiveness of services (which includes governance, protocols and guidelines, information system, and quality assurance). The tool also collected information of interventions in place, categorized in user-directed interventions to increase demand, user-directed interventions to increase access, provider-directed interventions, and policy and system-level interventions. All countries prioritized barriers related to the information systems, such as the population register not being accurate or complete (N = 19; 70.4%). All countries implemented some kind of intervention to improve cancer screening, group education being the most reported (N = 23; 85.2%). Training on screening delivery was the most referred provider-directed intervention (N = 19; 70.4%). The study has identified several barriers to the implementation of cancer screening in the region and interventions in place to overcome some of the barriers. Further analysis is required to evaluate the effectiveness of these interventions in achieving their objectives.

Assessment of organization of cervical and breast cancer screening programmes in the Latin American and the Caribbean states: The CanScreen5 framework.

BACKGROUND: In the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC), breast cancer and cervical cancer are the first and third causes of cancer death among females. The objectives are to assess the characteristics of the cervical and breast cancer screening programmes in CELAC, their level of organization, and the association of screening organization and coverage of essential health services. METHODS: Representatives of the Ministries of Health of 33 countries were invited to the CanScreen5 project. Twenty-seven countries participated in a "Train The Trainers" programme on cancer screening, and 26 submitted data using standardized questionnaires. Data were discussed and validated. The level of organization of the screening programmes was examined adapting the list of essential elements of organized screening programmes identified in a recently published IARC study. RESULTS: Twenty-one countries reported a screening programme for cervical cancer and 15 for breast cancer. For cervical cancer, 14 countries dedicated budget for screening (66.7%), and women had to pay in 3 countries for screening (14.3%), 9 for diagnosis (42.9%) and 8 for treatment (38.1%). Only 4 countries had a system to invite women individually (19.0%). For breast cancer, 8 countries dedicated budget for screening (53.3%), and women had to pay for screening in 3 countries (20.0%), diagnosis in 7 (46.7%) and treatment in 6 (40.0%). One country (6.7%) invited women individually. There was variability in the level of organization of both cancer screening programmes. The level of organization of cervical cancer screening and coverage of essential health services were correlated. CONCLUSION: Large gaps were identified in the organization of cervical and breast cancer screening services. CELAC governments need pragmatic public health policies and strengthened health systems. They should guarantee sustainable funding, and universal access to cancer diagnosis and treatment. Moreover, countries should enhance their health information system and ensure adequate monitoring and evaluation.

Components and effectiveness of patient navigation programmes to increase participation to breast, cervical and colorectal cancer screening: A systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Inequalities in cancer incidence and mortality can be partly explained by unequal access to high-quality health services, including cancer screening. Several interventions have been described to increase access to cancer screening, among them patient navigation (PN), a barrier-focused intervention. This systematic review aimed to identify the reported components of PN and to assess the effectiveness of PN to promote breast, cervical and colorectal cancer screening. METHODS: We searched Embase, PubMed and Web of Science Core Collection databases. The components of PN programmes were identified, including the types of barriers addressed by navigators. The percentage change in screening participation was calculated. RESULTS: The 44 studies included were mainly on colorectal cancer and were conducted in the USA. All described their goals and community characteristics, and the majority reported the setting (97.7%), monitoring and evaluation (97.7%), navigator background and qualifications (81.4%) and training (79.1%). Supervision was only referred to in 16 studies (36.4%). Programmes addressed mainly barriers at the educational (63.6%) and health system level (61.4%), while only 25.0% reported providing social and emotional support. PN increased cancer screening participation when compared with usual care (0.4% to 250.6% higher) and educational interventions (3.3% to 3558.0% higher). CONCLUSION: Patient navigation programmes are effective at increasing participation to breast, cervical and colorectal cancer screening. A standardized reporting of the components of PN programmes would allow their replication and a better measure of their impact. Understanding the local context and needs is essential to design a successful PN programme.

CanScreen5, a global repository for breast, cervical and colorectal cancer screening programs.

The CanScreen5 project is a global cancer screening data repository that aims to report the status and performance of breast, cervical and colorectal cancer screening programs using a harmonized set of criteria and indicators. Data collected mainly from the Ministry of Health in each country underwent quality validation and ultimately became publicly available through a Web-based portal. Until September 2022, 84 participating countries reported data for breast (n = 57), cervical (n = 75) or colorectal (n = 51) cancer screening programs in the repository. Substantial heterogeneity was observed regarding program organization and performance. Reported screening coverage ranged from 1.7% (Bangladesh) to 85.5% (England, United Kingdom) for breast cancer, from 2.1% (Côte d'Ivoire) to 86.3% (Sweden) for cervical cancer, and from 0.6% (Hungary) to 64.5% (the Netherlands) for colorectal cancer screening programs. Large variability was observed regarding compliance to further assessment of screening programs and detection rates reported for precancers and cancers. A concern is lack of data to estimate performance indicators across the screening continuum. This underscores the need for programs to incorporate quality assurance protocols supported by robust information systems. Program organization requires improvement in resource-limited settings, where screening is likely to be resource-stratified and tailored to country-specific situations.

Survey of current policies towards widening cervical screening coverage among vulnerable women in 22 European countries.

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to investigate the status of cervical cancer screening (CCS) implementation in Europe by investigating national or regional policies towards broadening coverage of CCS amongst vulnerable subgroups of the population at high risk for CC. METHODS: A web-based survey was conducted between September 2021 and February 2022 with CCS programme managers and experts to identify and rank six population subgroups at high risk considered most vulnerable to CC and to map existing policies that addressed the coverage of CCS towards population sub-groups at risk. RESULTS: A total of 31 responses were received from experts covering 22 European countries. The results of this survey suggest that whilst many countries identify lower coverage of CCS amongst population subgroups at high risk of CC as a public health problem, few countries have developed dedicated policies towards broadening coverage among these subgroups. The six countries who reported having done so were concentrated in the Northern or Western European regions, suggesting the existence of geographical disparities within the continent. A key challenge in this respect is the difficulty to categorize subgroups of the target population; many individuals are burdened by intersectionality thereby resting in multiple categories, which may hinder the effectiveness of interventions targeted to reach specific subgroups. CONCLUSION: A greater clarity on the conceptualization of vulnerability can help countries to develop and subsequently implement strategies to increase coverage to subgroups of the target population currently underserved with regards to CCS.

Efficacy, acceptability and safety of ablative versus excisional procedure in the treatment of histologically confirmed CIN2/3: A systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Outcomes of earlier systematic reviews of the efficacy of ablative and excisional techniques to treat cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 2 or 3 (CIN2/3) were biased, as most of the included studies did not compare the techniques head-to-head. OBJECTIVE: To systematically review the outcomes of studies comparing ablative and excisional techniques to treat CIN2/3 head-to-head. SEARCH STRATEGY: Medline, Embase and Global Index Medicus were searched from inception until May 2021. SELECTION CRITERIA: Studies directly comparing the efficacy and safety of excisional and ablative treatments on histologically confirmed CIN2/3. Eligibility criteria for the women treated with ablation had to be same as those treated with excision. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: A total of 323 articles were archived. Data on the risk of persistence/recurrence and safety were extracted from the original trials. Comparison between the two procedures was reported by forest plots, stratified by follow-up intervals and by HIV status. MAIN RESULTS: Six publications were included. The risk of persistence/recurrence following ablation was significantly higher than that following excision (overall, RR 1.65, 95% CI 1.25-2.19; at 6-month follow-up, RR 1.94, 95% CI 1.29-2.91; at 12-month follow-up, RR 1.78, 95% CI 1.27-2.51; at 24-month follow-up, RR 1.57, 95% CI 1.11-2.23). The findings remained similar among women living with HIV (WLHIV). Both procedures were equally safe. CONCLUSIONS: Excisional treatment was more effective than ablative treatment, with both procedures having similar safety profiles. Other programmatic considerations will guide the selection of technique, especially in resource-limited settings.

Cancer burden and status of cancer control measures in fragile states: a comparative analysis of 31 countries.

BACKGROUND: Information on cancer statistics and cancer control policies is limited in fragile states. This paper describes the cancer burden and status of cancer control measures in these countries. METHODS: In this comparative analysis, fragile states presenting with a Fragile States Index (FSI) score of 90·0 or more (alert for fragility) for at least 10 years during the 2006-20 period were selected. States with fewer than 10 years of data were selected if they were in alert for fragility during all years. Information on cancer burden, prevalence of cancer risk factors, population-attributable fraction, and on political commitment, health financing, and health system capacity was collected. Cancer incidence and mortality was calculated on the basis of data from population-based cancer registries, estimated with modelling that used mortality-to-incidence ratios and incidence-to-mortality ratios derived from cancer registries in neighbouring countries, or average of rates in selected neighbouring countries. For statistical comparison, fragile states were grouped according to the annual percent change (APC) of the FSI, with group 1 showing an increasing fragility trend (APC 0·2% or higher), group 2 a relatively stable fragility trend (APC between 0·2% and -0·2%), and group 3 a decreasing fragility trend (APC of -0·2% or lower). FINDINGS: Overall, the estimated cancer burden in the 31 selected fragile states was lower than worldwide rates, except for cervical and prostate cancer. Cancer cases were attributed to infections (22·40% in group 1, 21·20% in group 2, and 18·80% in group 3) at a higher proportion in fragile states than globally (13·0%). Group 1 and 2 showed a significantly higher exposure to household air pollution (97·70% in group 1 and 94·90% in group 2), whereas current tobacco use in men increased from group 1 to group 3, with lung cancer incidence and mortality being higher in group 3. However, 25 countries had implemented only one or no MPOWER measures for tobacco control. Countries showed an out-of-pocket expenditure of 48·72% in group 1, 42·68% in group 2, and 51·07% in group 3, and only half of the countries had an updated cancer control plan or cancer management guidelines. INTERPRETATION: Fragile states have started the epidemiological transition but are still not implementing enough cancer control measures. There is a need to develop reliable cancer control plans and guidelines, and to create financial mechanisms for implementation. FUNDING: None. TRANSLATIONS: For the Arabic and French translations of the abstract see Supplementary Materials section.

An international consensus on the essential and desirable criteria for an 'organized' cancer screening programme.

BACKGROUND: High variability in the definition and interpretation of organized cancer screening needs to be addressed systematically. Moreover, the relevance of the current practice of categorizing screening programmes dichotomously into organized or non-organized needs to be revisited in the context of considerable heterogeneity that exists in the delivery of cancer screening in the real world. We aimed to identify the essential and desirable criteria for organized cancer screening that serve as a charter of best practices in cancer screening. METHODS: We first did a systematic review of literature to arrive at an exhaustive list of criteria used by various publications to describe or define organized cancer screening, based on which, a consolidated list of criteria was generated. Next, we used a Delphi process comprising of two rounds of online surveys to seek agreement of experts to categorize each criterion into essential, desirable, or neither. Consensus was considered to have been achieved based on a predetermined criterion of agreement from at least 80% of the experts. The outcomes were presented before the experts in a virtual meeting for feedbacks and clarifications. RESULTS: A total of 32 consolidated criteria for an organized screening programme were identified and presented to 24 experts from 20 countries to select the essential criteria in the Delphi first round. Total 16 criteria were selected as essential with the topmost criteria (based on the agreement of 96% of experts) being the availability of a protocol/guideline describing at least the target population, screening intervals, screening tests, referral pathway, management of positive cases and a system being in place to identify the eligible populations. In the second round of Delphi, the experts selected eight desirable criteria out of the rest 16. The most agreed upon desirable criterion was existence of a specified organization or a team responsible for programme implementation and/or coordination. CONCLUSIONS: We established an international consensus on essential and desirable criteria, which screening programmes would aspire to fulfil to be better-organized. The harmonized criteria are a ready-to-use guide for programme managers and policymakers to prioritize interventions and resources rather than supporting the dichotomous and simplistic approach of categorizing programmes as organized or non-organized.

Cross-sectional survey of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cancer screening programs in selected low- and middle-income countries: Study from the IARC COVID-19 impact study group.

We conducted a study to document the impact of COVID-19 pandemic on cancer screening continuum in selected low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). LMICs having an operational cancer control plan committed to screen eligible individuals were selected. Managers/supervisors of cancer screening programs were invited to participate in an online survey and subsequent in-depth interview. Managers/supervisors from 18 programs in 17 countries participated. Lockdown was imposed in all countries except Brazil. Screening was suspended for at least 30 days in 13 countries, while diagnostic-services for screen-positives were suspended in 9 countries. All countries except Cameroon, Bangladesh, India, Honduras and China managed to continue with cancer treatment throughout the outbreak. The participants rated service availability compared to pre-COVID days on a scale of 0 (no activities) to 100 (same as before). A rating of ≤50 was given for screening services by 61.1%, diagnostic services by 44.4% and treatment services by 22.2% participants. At least 70% participants strongly agreed that increased noncompliance of screen-positive individuals and staff being overloaded or overwhelmed with backlogs would deeply impact screening programs in the next 6 months at least. Although many of the LMICs were deficient in following the "best practices" to minimize service disruptions, at least some of them made significant efforts to improve screening participation, treatment compliance and program organization. A well-coordinated effort is needed to reinitiate screening services in the LMICs, starting with a situational analysis. Innovative strategies adopted by the programs to keep services on-track should be mutually shared.

Employment precariousness and mental health, understanding a complex reality: a systematic review.

Precarious employment has expanded during the last decades, but there is no full consensus on its definition, and its impact on mental health is not completely understood. The relevance of several micro- and macro-level variables in the association between precarious employment and mental health has not been fully addressed. This review has 2 aims: to identify scientific evidence on the relationship between various dimensions of precarious employment and mental health, and to synthesize the inclusion of a gender-sensitive perspective, context variables, workers' household variables, and the discussion of causal mechanisms underlying the association. The literature was searched in PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science and PsycINFO including articles dated 2010-May 2018. A minimum of 2 independent reviewers assessed each article regarding quality and eligibility criteria. The search retrieved 1522 papers, of which 54 (corresponding to 53 studies) met the inclusion criteria. Most of the studies analyzing job insecurity, temporariness and multidimensional approaches reported a significant association. Nevertheless, results for working time arrangements and downsizing are inconclusive. Around half of the studies included sex-stratified analyses and formulated contradictory conclusions. Overall, 7 studies considered workers' household situation and only 3 delivered significant results, and 16 described some of the potential pathways. There is evidence of an association between various precarious employment approaches and mental health problems. Further research (preferably longitudinal) should aim to discuss theoretical models explaining the pathways between precarious employment and mental health, including a gender-sensitive perspective, and integrating several levels of individual and contextual variables. Int J Occup Med Environ Health. 2020;33(5):569-98.

Desigualdades socioeconómicas en la salud de la población mayor en España / Socioeconomic inequalities in health among the elderly population in Spain

OBJETIVO: Examinar las desigualdades socioeconómicas en salud en población mayor en España. MÉTODO: Se realizó una búsqueda sistemática y una revisión de las publicaciones en inglés y español entre los años 2000 y 2017 en Social Science Citation Index, Sociology Database, Scopus, PubMed y Embase. Se incluyeron estudios primarios y secundarios que analizaban dichas desigualdades en España. Dos investigadoras seleccionaron los estudios y extrajeron la información (primer/a autor/a, año de publicación, región, diseño, población/muestra, indicadores socioeconómicos y de salud utilizados, y resultados más relevantes). RESULTADOS: Se incluyeron 89 artículos que se correspondían con 87 estudios. El 81,6% de los estudios eran transversales, un 88,5% incluía solo población no institucionalizada y el 35,6% eran de ámbito estatal. Los estudios analizaban desigualdades en los siguientes indicadores de salud: estado funcional (n=29), morbilidad (n=19), salud percibida (n=18), salud mental y emocional (n=10), estado cognitivo (n=7), calidad de vida (n=9), mortalidad (n=15) y esperanza de vida (n=2). Se detectaron desigualdades socioeconómicas en todos ellos, si bien la magnitud varió en función de los indicadores socioeconómicos y de salud utilizados. El nivel educativo y los índices ecológicos fueron los que más desigualdades en salud detectaron. El impacto de las desigualdades por sexo fue diferente en el estado funcional, la morbilidad, la salud percibida, la salud mental y emocional, y la mortalidad. CONCLUSIÓN: Existen desigualdades socioeconómicas en salud entre la población mayor, cuya magnitud varía según el sexo en algunos indicadores de salud. El mayor nivel educativo y el mantenimiento de unas pensiones suficientes pueden ser políticas clave que contribuyan a la disminución de las desigualdades en este grupo de población

OBJECTIVE: To examine socioeconomic inequalities in health in the older population in Spain. METHOD: A systematic search and review of the literature published between 2000 and 2017 in English and Spanish was conducted in Social Science Citation Index, Sociology Database, Scopus, PubMed and Embase. Primary and secondary studies analysing these inequalities in Spain were included. Two researchers were responsible for the selection of the studies and the extraction of the information (first author, year of publication, region, design, population/sample, socioeconomic and health indicators used, and main results). RESULTS: A total of 89 articles were included, corresponding to 87 studies. Of the studies, 81.6% were cross-sectional, 88.5% included only non-institutionalised population and 35.6% were carried out at a national level. The studies analysed social inequalities in the following health indicators: functional status (n=29), morbidity (n=19), self-perceived health (n=18), mental and emotional health (n=10), cognitive status (n=7), quality of life (n=9), mortality (n=15) and life expectancy (n=2). Socioeconomic inequalities were detected in all of them, although the magnitude varied depending on the socioeconomic and health indicator used. The educational level and the ecological indexes were the indicators that detected more inequalities in health. The impact of inequalities by sex was different in functional status, morbidity, self-perceived health, mental and emotional health and mortality. CONCLUSION: There are socioeconomic inequalities in health among the elderly population and their magnitude varies by sex in some of the health indicators. The increase in educational level and the maintenance of sufficient pensions can be key policies that contribute to the reduction of inequalities in this population group

Desigualdades sociales en salud en población mayor: revisión de los indicadores empleados en España / Social inequalities in health among the elderly population: review of indicators used in Spain

OBJETIVO: Identificar los indicadores de posición social utilizados para la evaluación de desigualdades en salud en la población de 65 y más años en España. MÉTODO: Se llevó a cabo una búsqueda sistemática de publicaciones en inglés y español desde el año 2000 en bases de datos sanitarias y sociales. Se incluyeron estudios primarios y secundarios que analizaban dichas desigualdades en España. Se identificaron los indicadores utilizados, así como las ventajas y limitaciones señaladas por los/las autores/as. Los principales hallazgos se sintetizaron en forma de revisión de la literatura. RESULTADOS: Se incluyeron 87 estudios, que se describían en 89 artículos. Los indicadores socioeconómicos empleados fueron tanto individuales como de tipo ecológico. Entre los primeros, el nivel educativo fue la variable socioeconómica más analizada (n=73). Otras variables individuales empleadas fueron la ocupación (n=17), el nivel económico objetivo (n=16), el nivel económico subjetivo (n=4), la vivienda y la riqueza material del hogar (n=6), la relación con la actividad laboral (n=5) y medidas mixtas (n=5). Entre los indicadores ecológicos se identificaron índices simples (n=3) y compuestos (n=7). Estos últimos se habían construido a partir de varios indicadores, entre los que se encontraban el nivel educativo y el desempleo. Se analizaron las desigualdades en múltiples indicadores de salud, siendo la salud percibida el único indicador evaluado en función de todos los indicadores socioeconómicos descritos. CONCLUSIONES: Se identifica una gran variedad de indicadores socioeconómicos para el análisis de las desigualdades sociales en salud en población mayor. No se evalúan suficientemente desde una perspectiva de género, por lo que esto constituye una línea de interés para futuras investigaciones

OBJECTIVE: To identify the indicators of social position used to evaluate inequalities in health among the population aged 65 and over in Spain. METHOD: A systematic search of the literature published in English and Spanish since 2000 in health and social databases was carried out. Primary and secondary studies analyzing these inequalities in Spain were included. The indicators used were identified, as well as the advantages and limitations pointed out by the authors. The main findings were synthesized in a review of the literature. RESULTS: We included 87 studies, described in 89 articles. The socioeconomic indicators employed were both individual and ecological. Among the former, educational level was the most analyzed socioeconomic variable (n=73). Other individual variables used were occupation (n=17), objective economic level (n=16), subjective economic level (n=4), housing and household material wealth (n=6), relationship with work activity (n=5), and mixed measures (n=5). Among the ecological indicators, simple (n=3) and complex indices (n=7) were identified. The latter had been constructed based on several indicators, such as educational level and unemployment. Inequalities in multiple health indicators were analyzed, self-perceived health being the only indicator assessed according to all the socioeconomic indicators described. CONCLUSIONS: A wide variety of indicators is identified for the evaluation of social inequalities in health among the elderly population. There have not been sufficiently assessed from a gender perspective; this is a line of interest for future research

Inequalities in participation in colorectal cancer screening programmes: a systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a major public health problem due to its incidence and mortality. Screening programmes help decrease its impact on the population through early detection. However, the uneven distribution of social determinants of health can cause inequalities. The aim of this study is to identify the social inequalities in the participation in CRC screening programmes. METHODS: A systematic review of the literature was carried out, searching in both health and social databases for papers published since 2000 in English, Spanish, Portuguese and French. The search strategies combined terms regarding screening, CRC, participation and social inequalities. Included papers were quantitative or qualitative primary studies analyzing gender and socioeconomic inequalities in the participation in CRC screening programmes implemented by public and private health-care providers and addressing 45- to 75-year-old population. RESULTS: A total of 96 studies, described in 102 articles, were included. Most were quantitative observational studies and analyzed population-based screening programmes. They were carried out mainly in the UK (n=29) and the USA (n=18). Participation in screening programmes varied from 1.1% to 82.8% using several methods. A total of 87 studies assessed participation by sex and one focussed on men, but only two provided an analysis from a gender perspective. Although men are at a higher risk of developing CRC, they generally were less likely to participate in screening programmes. Screening attendance was higher among the least deprived areas. CONCLUSIONS: Gender and socioeconomic inequalities in CRC screening participation should be addressed through the design of tailored interventions with a multidimensional focus.

[Social inequalities in health among the elderly population: review of indicators used in Spain]. / Desigualdades sociales en salud en población mayor: revisión de los indicadores empleados en España.

OBJECTIVE: To identify the indicators of social position used to evaluate inequalities in health among the population aged 65 and over in Spain. METHOD: A systematic search of the literature published in English and Spanish since 2000 in health and social databases was carried out. Primary and secondary studies analyzing these inequalities in Spain were included. The indicators used were identified, as well as the advantages and limitations pointed out by the authors. The main findings were synthesized in a review of the literature. RESULTS: We included 87 studies, described in 89 articles. The socioeconomic indicators employed were both individual and ecological. Among the former, educational level was the most analyzed socioeconomic variable (n=73). Other individual variables used were occupation (n=17), objective economic level (n=16), subjective economic level (n=4), housing and household material wealth (n=6), relationship with work activity (n=5), and mixed measures (n=5). Among the ecological indicators, simple (n=3) and complex indices (n=7) were identified. The latter had been constructed based on several indicators, such as educational level and unemployment. Inequalities in multiple health indicators were analyzed, self-perceived health being the only indicator assessed according to all the socioeconomic indicators described. CONCLUSIONS: A wide variety of indicators is identified for the evaluation of social inequalities in health among the elderly population. There have not been sufficiently assessed from a gender perspective; this is a line of interest for future research.

[Socioeconomic inequalities in health among the elderly population in Spain]. / Desigualdades socioeconómicas en la salud de la población mayor en España.

OBJECTIVE: To examine socioeconomic inequalities in health in the older population in Spain. METHOD: A systematic search and review of the literature published between 2000 and 2017 in English and Spanish was conducted in Social Science Citation Index, Sociology Database, Scopus, PubMed and Embase. Primary and secondary studies analysing these inequalities in Spain were included. Two researchers were responsible for the selection of the studies and the extraction of the information (first author, year of publication, region, design, population/sample, socioeconomic and health indicators used, and main results). RESULTS: A total of 89 articles were included, corresponding to 87 studies. Of the studies, 81.6% were cross-sectional, 88.5% included only non-institutionalised population and 35.6% were carried out at a national level. The studies analysed social inequalities in the following health indicators: functional status (n=29), morbidity (n=19), self-perceived health (n=18), mental and emotional health (n=10), cognitive status (n=7), quality of life (n=9), mortality (n=15) and life expectancy (n=2). Socioeconomic inequalities were detected in all of them, although the magnitude varied depending on the socioeconomic and health indicator used. The educational level and the ecological indexes were the indicators that detected more inequalities in health. The impact of inequalities by sex was different in functional status, morbidity, self-perceived health, mental and emotional health and mortality. CONCLUSION: There are socioeconomic inequalities in health among the elderly population and their magnitude varies by sex in some of the health indicators. The increase in educational level and the maintenance of sufficient pensions can be key policies that contribute to the reduction of inequalities in this population group.

The Impact of Fiscal Policies on the Socioeconomic Determinants of Health.

There has been considerable recent debate around the alleged impact of discretionary fiscal policies - especially austerity policies - on health and health inequalities. Assuming that most of the impact will have to run via the effect of fiscal policies on socioeconomic determinants of health (SDH), it is of interest to gain a further understanding of the relationship between fiscal policies and SDH. Therefore, the aim of this article is to review the recent evidence on the impact of discretionary fiscal policies on key SDH, i.e. income, poverty, education, and employment, in high income OECD countries. We find that there are no simple answers as to how fiscal policy affects those determinants of health. The effects of contractionary and expansionary fiscal policies on the analyzed SDH vary considerably across countries and will largely depend on the pre-crisis situation. Contractionary fiscal policies seem to have increased poverty, while their impact on income inequality will be influenced by the composition of the implemented measures. More empirical research trying to directly link fiscal policies to health outcomes, while taking into account of some of the mechanisms encountered here, would be worthwhile.

Colaboración atención primaria-salud mental en la asistencia a pacientes con depresión: evaluación de una experiencia piloto / Primary care and mental health care collaboration in patients with depression: Evaluation of a pilot experience

OBJETIVO: Implementar y evaluar una experiencia colaborativa entre Atención Primaria (AP) y Salud Mental (SM) para mejorar la asistencia a los pacientes con depresión. DISEÑO: Proyecto colaborativo piloto con enfoque de investigación acción participativa (IAP) durante 2013. EMPLAZAMIENTO: País Vasco. Osakidetza (Servicio Vasco de Salud). Bizkaia y Gipuzkoa. PARTICIPANTES: Doscientos siete profesionales de medicina de familia, enfermería, psiquiatría, enfermería psiquiátrica, psicología y trabajo social de 9 centros de salud y 6 centros de salud mental de Osakidetza. INTERVENCIONES: Diseño y desarrollo compartido de 4 ejes de intervención: 1) comunicación y conocimiento entre profesionales de AP y SM; 2) mejora en la codificación diagnóstica y derivación de pacientes; 3) formación compartida mediante sesiones y guías de práctica clínica comunes, y 4) evaluación. MEDICIONES PRINCIPALES: Encuestas a profesionales de centros de intervención y control sobre conocimiento y satisfacción en la relación AP-SM, actividades formativas conjuntas y valoración de la experiencia. Registros de Osakidetza sobre prevalencias, derivaciones y tratamientos. Reuniones de seguimiento. RESULTADOS: Mejoría en los centros de intervención respecto a los de control en los 4 ejes de intervención. Identificación de factores a considerar en el desarrollo y la sostenibilidad de la colaboración AP-SM. CONCLUSIONES: La experiencia piloto confirma que los proyectos colaborativos promovidos por AP y SM pueden mejorar la asistencia y satisfacción de los profesionales. Son proyectos complejos que requieren intervenciones simultáneas adecuadas a las singularidades de los servicios de salud. La participación pluridisciplinaria y continuada, y el apoyo de la gestión y los sistemas de información, son condiciones necesarias para su implementación

OBJECTIVE: To implement and assess a collaborative experience between Primary Care (PC) and Mental Health (MH) in order to improve the care of patients with depression. DESIGN: Pilot collaborative project from a participatory action research approach during 2013. LOCATION: Basque Country. Osakidetza (Basque Health Service). Bizkaia and Gipuzkoa. PARTICIPANTS: The study included 207 professionals from general practice, nursing, psychiatry, psychiatric nursing, psychology and social work of 9 health centres and 6 mental health centres of Osakidetza. INTERVENTIONS: Shared design and development of four axes of intervention: 1) Communication and knowledge between PC and MH professionals, 2) Improvement of diagnostic coding and referral of patients, 3) Training programmes with meetings and common Clinical Practice Guidelines, and 4) Evaluation. MAIN MEASUREMENTS: Intervention and control questionnaires to professionals of the centres on the knowledge and satisfaction in the PC-MH relationship, joint training activities, and assessment of the experience. Osakidetza registers of prevalences, referrals and treatments. Follow-up meetings. RESULTS: Improvement in the 4 axes of intervention in the participant centres compared with the controls. Identification of factors to be considered in the development and sustainability of PC-MH collaborative care. CONCLUSIONS: The pilot experience confirms that collaborative projects promoted by PC and MH can improve depression care and the satisfaction of professionals. They are complex projects that need simultaneous interventions adjusted to the particularities of the health services. Multidisciplinary and continuous participation and management and information system support are necessary for their implementation

[Primary care and mental health care collaboration in patients with depression: Evaluation of a pilot experience]. / Colaboración atención primaria-salud mental en la asistencia a pacientes con depresión: evaluación de una experiencia piloto.

OBJECTIVE: To implement and assess a collaborative experience between Primary Care (PC) and Mental Health (MH) in order to improve the care of patients with depression. DESIGN: Pilot collaborative project from a participatory action research approach during 2013. LOCATION: Basque Country. Osakidetza (Basque Health Service). Bizkaia and Gipuzkoa. PARTICIPANTS: The study included 207 professionals from general practice, nursing, psychiatry, psychiatric nursing, psychology and social work of 9 health centres and 6 mental health centres of Osakidetza. INTERVENTIONS: Shared design and development of four axes of intervention: 1) Communication and knowledge between PC and MH professionals, 2) Improvement of diagnostic coding and referral of patients, 3) Training programmes with meetings and common Clinical Practice Guidelines, and 4) Evaluation. MAIN MEASUREMENTS: Intervention and control questionnaires to professionals of the centres on the knowledge and satisfaction in the PC-MH relationship, joint training activities, and assessment of the experience. Osakidetza registers of prevalences, referrals and treatments. Follow-up meetings. RESULTS: Improvement in the 4 axes of intervention in the participant centres compared with the controls. Identification of factors to be considered in the development and sustainability of PC-MH collaborative care. CONCLUSIONS: The pilot experience confirms that collaborative projects promoted by PC and MH can improve depression care and the satisfaction of professionals. They are complex projects that need simultaneous interventions adjusted to the particularities of the health services. Multidisciplinary and continuous participation and management and information system support are necessary for their implementation.

Measuring the impact of informal elderly caregiving: a systematic review of tools.

PURPOSE: To classify and identify the main characteristics of the tools used in practice to assess the impact of elderly caregiving on the informal carers' life. METHODS: A systematic review of literature was performed searching in Embase, MEDLINE, PsycINFO, CINAHL, IBECS, LILACS, SiiS, SSCI and Cochrane Library from 2009 to 2013 in English, Spanish, Portuguese and French, and in reference lists of included papers. RESULTS: The review included 79 studies, among them several in languages other than English. Their inclusion increased the variety of identified tools to measure this impact (n = 93) and allowed a wider analysis of their geographical use. While confirming their overlapping nature, instruments were classified according to the degree of integration of dimensions they evaluated and their specificity to the caregiving process: caregiver burden (n = 20), quality of life and well-being (n = 11), management and coping (n = 21), emotional and mental health (n = 29), psychosocial impact (n = 10), physical health and healthy habits (n = 2), and other measures. A high use in practice of tools not validated yet and not caregiver-specific was identified. CONCLUSIONS: The great variety and characteristics of instruments identified in this review confirm the complexity and multidimensionality of the effects of elderly caregiving on the informal carer's life and explain the difficulties to assess these effects in practice. According to the classification provided, caregiver burden and emotional and mental health are the most evaluated dimensions. However, further work is required to develop integrated and caregiving focused procedures that can appraise this complexity across different countries and cultures.