Is Motor Coordination the Key to Success in Youth Cycling?

PURPOSE: To evaluate the predictive value of a (non-)sport-specific test battery on the future success of young cyclists, test scores were compared with competition performances 2-3 years later. METHODS: Three motor coordination, 5 physical performance, and 2 cycling-specific measurements were collected in 111 U15 (13.0-14.9 y) and 67 U17 (15.0-16.9 y) male road cyclists. In addition, maturity status, relative age, and competition history were assessed. National and provincial competition results 2-3 years later, in the U17year2 and U19year2 categories, were submitted to 2 separate 4-stage hierarchical regressions. RESULTS: The results of the model of the U15 group revealed that maturity, relative age, competition history, motor coordination, physical performance, and cycling-specific performance accounted for 22.6% of the variance in competitive success. For the U15 category, only maturity and motor coordination were significant predictors of competitive success in the U17year2 category. Maturity and motor coordination each uniquely explained ±5% of the variance. However, for the U17 group-neither motor coordination, physical performance, nor cycling-specific performance could predict competitive success in the U19year2 category. CONCLUSIONS: The current study underlines the importance of general motor coordination as a building block necessary for optimal development in youth cycling. However, considering the lack of predictive value from the U17 category onward, other features may determine further development of youth athletes. Nevertheless, it is questioned why athletes need to possess a minimum level of all physical, motor coordination, and cycling-specific characteristics to experience success and enjoyment in their sport.

Do Race Results in Youth Competitions Predict Future Success as a Road Cyclist? A Retrospective Study in the Italian Cycling Federation.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between youth road cycling success and becoming a professional cyclist. Specifically, the authors sought to analyze (1) the differences in the success scores in youth categories between future professional (PRO) and future nonprofessional (NON-PRO) cyclists, (2) whether relative age effect influences youth road cycling career pathways, and (3) whether youth competition success could predict a future career as a professional cyclist. METHODS: The number of points gathered in the annual national ranking of 1345 Italian cyclists in the U17, U19, and U23 categories were retrospectively analyzed. Participants were divided into 2 groups: PRO (n = 43) and future NON-PRO (n = 1302), depending on whether they reached the professional level. RESULTS: PRO outperformed NON-PRO in all the youth categories considered (ie, U17, U19, and U23). Older cyclists within the same annual age group were not overrepresented in PRO and do not have an advantage over younger cyclists within all the competition years. The number of points gathered in youth competitions provides an indication of probability of becoming professional cyclists from U17 onward with the predictive value increasing with age category. CONCLUSIONS: Handling the transition to a new age group well (especially the U19-U23 transition), and therefore having success competing against older and more experienced cyclists, is an important factor for talent identification in youth cycling.

Mind, body, and shuttle: multidimensional benchmarks for talent identification in male youth badminton.

The aim of the study was to identify benchmarks for anthropometric, physical performance, motor coordination, and psychological characteristics by comparing youth badminton players of different levels through the use of a multifactorial test battery. Sixty-one male participants aged 12-18 years were divided into three groups: elite (N = 10), sub-elite (N = 24), and novice (N = 27). Standard test batteries for anthropometry (including measures to estimate biological maturity), physical performance, and motor coordination were applied, as well as the modified PCDEQ2 questionnaire for psychological characteristics of youth athletes (Hill, 2016). Multivariate analyses of covariance (MANCOVAs) with age and biological maturity as covariates were used to investigate differences between skill levels. A discriminant analysis was used to reveal to what extent participants could be correctly assigned to their skill group. Significant differences were found in physical performance (explosive power, flexibility, speed, and endurance), BMI and motor coordination. In the psychological domain, perfectionism was found to be significantly different and elites scored highest. The discriminant analysis showed that 100% of the participants were correctly classified and 80.0% were correctly cross validated. These results significantly add to the previously limited youth players' reference values, and confirm the value of a generic, i.e. without sport-specific testing, multifactorial approach to talent identification in youth badminton.

A Retrospective Analysis of the National Youth Teams in Volleyball: Were They Always Faster, Taller, and Stronger?

ABSTRACT: Mireille, M, Johan, P, Matthieu, L, and Pieter, V. A retrospective analysis of the national youth teams in volleyball: Were they always faster, taller, and stronger? J Strength Cond Res 36(9): 2615-2621, 2022-Although there are numerous studies comparing the characteristics of young and adult volleyball players of different levels, it remains unclear to what extent these findings can be used for performance prediction because very few are based on longitudinal or retrospective analyses. The aim of the current retrospective study was to test to what extent anthropometry, physical performance, and motor coordination can predict future selection in national youth teams. From 2012 to 2015, 1738 10- to 13-year-old boys and girls who played volleyball completed 3 anthropometric, 4 physical performance, and 3 motor coordination tests. In January 2020, 52 athletes of this sample were found to be part of one of the national youth teams of Belgium. A multivariate analysis of covariance, discriminant analyses, and logistic regression analyses were conducted to compare the test results of the selected vs. the nonselected players. Significance level was set at p ≤ 0.05. Results showed that the selected players were already taller and showed better jumping performance, and for females, they tended to have better motor coordination at the time of baseline measurement. Therefore, it seems important to focus on the development of motor coordination and jumping performance at young ages because superiority in these characteristics increases the chances to be selected for the national team 4-8 years later. Nevertheless, considering the large variation in results, selection cannot be made based on these characteristics alone. The practical implications for coaches and federations with respect to training and talent detection are discussed.

The importance of performance in youth competitions as an indicator of future success in cycling.

ABSTRACTIn sports, outperforming your peers at young age does not guarantee a professional sports career as an adult. To gain more insight in how performance in youth cycling competitions can be an indicator for future success, the current study (a) examined differences in success rate between future achievers and future non-achievers, (b) investigated whether the relative age effect affects these career pathways and (c) explored to what extent youth competitive performance can predict success at adult age. The sample consisted of 307 male road cyclists who achieved at least one top 10 result during national and provincial youth competitions (U15, U17, U19). Thirty-two were classified as future achievers because they reached senior elite level; the remaining 275 were classed as future non-achievers. Non-parametric analyses of longitudinal data, Kruskal-Wallis and logistic regressions were applied. These analyses revealed that the future achievers started to outperform the future non-achievers from U17 onwards. While the relatively older cyclists have an advantage over other cyclists in U15, this effect was smaller in U17 and was absent in U19. Finally, the competitive success rate of U15 cyclists could not predict success at adult age. However, for U17 and U19 cyclists each additional top 10 result was associated with 3-5%, and 6% higher chance to reach elite level at adult age, respectively. Overall, these results demonstrate that estimating potential based on competition results is unpredictable in the U15 category, however, may provide a better indication of future success from U17 onwards.Highlights The competitive success rate of U15 cyclists could not predict success at adult ageFrom the U17 category onwards, future achievers had higher success rates, and success rate has some predictive value for performance at senior elite level.Competitive performance is influenced by relative age effect in the U15 category, however, this effect disappeared as the athlete progressed into older age categories.Future non-achievers experience a significant decrease in success rate when transitioning to a new competition category.

The Effects of Age, Biological Maturation and Sex on the Development of Executive Functions in Adolescents.

The development of executive functions (EF) has been widely investigated and is associated with various domains of expertise, such as academic achievement and sports performance. Multiple factors are assumed to influence the development of EF, among them biological maturation. Currently the effect of biological maturation on EF performance is largely unexplored, in contrast to other domains like physical development or sports performance. Therefore, this study aimed (a) to explore the effect of chronological age on EF performance and (b) to investigate to what extent age-related changes found in EF are affected by biological maturation on both sexes. To this end, EF performance and degree of maturity, indexed by percentage of predicted adult height (%PAH), of 90 adolescents (11-16 years old, 54% males) were measured on three occasions in a time frame of 12 months. A Generalized Estimating Equation (GEE) approach was used to examine the association between chronological age and %PAH and the weighted sum scores for each EF component (i.e., inhibition, planning, working memory, shifting). All models were run separately for both sexes. The males' results indicated that EF performance improved with age and degree of maturity on all four components. Interaction effects between age and %PAH on inhibition showed that at a younger age, males with a higher %PAH had a lower chance of performing well on inhibition, whereas at later ages, males with a higher %PAH had a higher chance to have a good inhibition performance. For working memory, it seems that there is no maturity effect at a younger age, while at later ages, a disadvantage for later maturing peers compared to on-time and earlier maturing male adolescents emerged. Females showed slightly different results. Here, age positively influenced EF performance, whereas maturity only influenced inhibition. Interaction effects emerged for working memory only, with opposite results from the males. At younger ages, females with lower %PAH values seem to be scoring higher, whereas at later ages, no maturity effect is observed. This study is one of the first to investigate the effect of biological maturation on EF performance, and shows that distinct components of EF are influenced by maturational status, although the effects are different in both sexes. Further research is warranted to unravel the implications for maturation-driven effects on EF that might significantly affect domains of human functioning like academic achievement and social development.

Validation of a Motor Competence Assessment Tool for Children and Adolescents (KTK3+) With Normative Values for 6- to 19-Year-Olds.

The use of the short form of the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder (KTK3) to evaluate children's and adolescents' motor competence (MC) is increasing. When combined with an alternating one-handed catching and throwing ball task, assessing eye-hand coordination (EHC), it has been shown that the different aspects of motor skills are adequately covered in one compact KTK3+ test battery, studied in 6- to 10-year-old children. The present study aimed to validate the KTK3+ test battery and to provide contemporary MC normative values for boys and girls from 6- to 19-year-olds. A total of 2,271 children and adolescents (1,112 boys, 1,159 girls) participated in this study and were evaluated on the four included test items: jumping sideways (JS), moving sideways (MS), balancing backwards (BB), supplemented by an EHC task. Children's participation in organised sport was registered using a demographic questionnaire. For the first objective, a factor analysis with multidimensional scaling demonstrated that the one-dimensional model provided the best fit, with all test items correlating to the same latent construct: "MC". This was further supported with moderate to good correlations between all four test items (r = 0.453-0.799). Construct validity was investigated with a three-way MANOVA, demonstrating a significant multivariate interaction effect between sex and age group (p = 0.001) as well as a multivariate main effect of sex, age group, and organised sport participation (p < 0.001). Boys outperformed girls on two out of the four tests (JS and EHC, p < 0.005), while girls were better than boys on the BB test (p < 0.005). Performance scores increased across age groups on all tests (p < 0.001). Only for the BB test score, a plateau effect was noted around the age of 12 years. Children and adolescents participating in sports generally outperformed their peers who were not involved in organised sports, on the present KTK3+ test battery. For the second objective, raw score normative values are provided separately for both sexes between 6- to 19-year-olds. In combination with the one-factor structure confirmation, these sex, age, and sport participation effects demonstrate the validity of the test battery. The provided normative values are useful to evaluate MC in children and adolescents from 6 to 19 years old. The use of only four test items that are identical across all ages makes the KTK3+ test battery a practical instrument to assess and compare MC development.

Identification of elite performance characteristics in a small sample of taekwondo athletes.

Along with the increasing popularity of taekwondo, there is a need of evidence-based talent identification (TID) and development programs based upon profiles of future elite athletes. This study first aims to investigate the differences between elite and non-elite taekwondo athletes in anthropometry, physical performance and motor coordination. The second aim is to demonstrate the applicability of z-scores in TID research. A total of 98 Taekwondo athletes between 12 and 17 years old were tested using a generic test battery consisting of four anthropometrical (Height, Weight, Fat Percentage, BMI), six physical performance (Sit & Reach, Sprint 5m, Sprint 30m, Counter Movement Jump, Squat Jump, Endurance Shuttle Run) and three motor coordination tests (Moving Sideways, Jumping Sideways, Walking Backwards). Based on the individual success at international competition level, 18 were categorised as elite athletes and 80 were considered as non-elite. T-tests (step 1) on raw test scores and MANOVAs on z-scores (step 2) were conducted to examine differences between the elite and non-elite taekwondo athletes for anthropometry, physical performance and motor coordination tests. Finally, z-scores were reconverted to raw scores to demonstrate practical significance for coaches. Overall, elite taekwondo athletes score better compared to the non-elite group. The MANOVA analysis better scores for elites on fat percentage (-0.55 versus 0.12;p = 0.006), BMI (-0.37 versus 0,08;p = 0.067) sprint speed 30m (-0.48 versus 0.11;p = 0.029), counter movement jump (0.79 versus -0.18;p = 0.000), squat jump (0.42 versus -0.11;p = 0.041), moving sideways (0.79 versus -0.18;p = 0.000) and walking backwards (0.54 versus -0.12;p = 0.006). This study confirms our knowledge on physical profiles of elite taekwondo athletes and expands our knowledge to the domain of motor coordination. This study showed how the z-score method can be used to distinguish between elite and non-elite athletes, the former being low in number by definition.

Age and maturity related differences in motor coordination among male elite youth soccer players.

This study investigated differences in generic and soccer specific motor coordination, as well as speed and agility depending on age and maturity in elite youth soccer players (U10-U15, N = 619). Measurements included body height, body weight and sitting height to estimate age at peak height velocity (APHV); three Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder subtests (i.e. jumping sideways (JS), moving sideways (MS), balancing backwards (BB)) to assess generic motor coordination; the UGent dribbling test for soccer specific motor coordination; a 5m/30m sprint and T-test for speed and agility, respectively. Age specific z-scores of the predicted APHV identified players as earlier, on time or later maturing. (M)ANOVA analyses showed significant age by maturity interaction effects for the speed and agility test cluster, revealing maturity related differences in U14 and U15 players. Next to an overall higher performance with age for all test clusters (η2 0.080-0.468), earlier maturing players outperformed their later maturing peers in 5m/30m sprinting. The opposite was seen for JS and BB. So, players' maturity status should be taken into account to adequately value performance in talent identification. Also, the focus on characteristics that appear to be minimally biased by an earlier maturational timing (i.e. motor coordination) should be increased.

A coaches' perspective on the contribution of anthropometry, physical performance, and motor coordination in racquet sports.

Differences and similarities between table tennis and other racquet sports exist, but are not well documented in the literature, in spite of the relevance for talent identification. In this study we aimed at identifying the key characteristics of table tennis in comparison with tennis and badminton based upon a survey in coaches. A total of 177 licensed coaches from all across the world and with diverse professional backgrounds completed a survey on anthropometric measures, physical performance, and motor coordination skills. On a scale from 1 to 10, coaches indicated to what extent a talent characteristic was important for their sport. MANOVA identified key differences as well as similarities between all three racquet sports and a subsequent discriminant analysis allocated coaches correctly for table tennis, tennis, and badminton 81.01%, 55.6%, and 71.4% respectively. Our results show that table tennis and other racquet sport coaches are well aware of differences between the racquet sports and also the importance and value of testing and assortment of skill components. These findings can assist coaches in future talent orientation and transfer in racquet sports.