ABSTRACT
DNA damage repair enzymes are promising targets in the development of new therapeutic agents for a wide range of cancers and potentially other diseases. The enzyme poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase (PARG) plays a pivotal role in the regulation of DNA repair mechanisms; however, the lack of potent drug-like inhibitors for use in cellular and in vivo models has limited the investigation of its potential as a novel therapeutic target. Using the crystal structure of human PARG in complex with the weakly active and cytotoxic anthraquinone 8a, novel quinazolinedione sulfonamides PARG inhibitors have been identified by means of structure-based virtual screening and library design. 1-Oxetan-3-ylmethyl derivatives 33d and 35d were selected for preliminary investigations in vivo. X-ray crystal structures help rationalize the observed structure-activity relationships of these novel inhibitors.
Subject(s)
DNA Repair , Drug Design , Glycoside Hydrolase Inhibitors/chemistry , Glycoside Hydrolase Inhibitors/pharmacology , Glycoside Hydrolases/antagonists & inhibitors , Quinazolinones/chemistry , Quinazolinones/pharmacology , Administration, Oral , Animals , Biological Availability , Catalytic Domain , Glycoside Hydrolase Inhibitors/administration & dosage , Glycoside Hydrolase Inhibitors/pharmacokinetics , Glycoside Hydrolases/chemistry , Glycoside Hydrolases/metabolism , HeLa Cells , Humans , Male , Mice , Models, Molecular , Quinazolinones/administration & dosage , Quinazolinones/pharmacokinetics , Structure-Activity RelationshipABSTRACT
Pharmacologic inhibition of LSD1 promotes blast cell differentiation in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) with MLL translocations. The assumption has been that differentiation is induced through blockade of LSD1's histone demethylase activity. However, we observed that rapid, extensive, drug-induced changes in transcription occurred without genome-wide accumulation of the histone modifications targeted for demethylation by LSD1 at sites of LSD1 binding and that a demethylase-defective mutant rescued LSD1 knockdown AML cells as efficiently as wild-type protein. Rather, LSD1 inhibitors disrupt the interaction of LSD1 and RCOR1 with the SNAG-domain transcription repressor GFI1, which is bound to a discrete set of enhancers located close to transcription factor genes that regulate myeloid differentiation. Physical separation of LSD1/RCOR1 from GFI1 is required for drug-induced differentiation. The consequent inactivation of GFI1 leads to increased enhancer histone acetylation within hours, which directly correlates with the upregulation of nearby subordinate genes.
Subject(s)
DNA-Binding Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors , Histone Demethylases/antagonists & inhibitors , Leukemia, Myeloid, Acute/drug therapy , Transcription Factors/antagonists & inhibitors , Cell Differentiation/drug effects , DNA-Binding Proteins/genetics , DNA-Binding Proteins/metabolism , Histone Demethylases/genetics , Histone Demethylases/metabolism , Humans , Leukemia, Myeloid, Acute/genetics , Leukemia, Myeloid, Acute/metabolism , Leukemia, Myeloid, Acute/pathology , Transcription Factors/genetics , Transcription Factors/metabolismABSTRACT
As part of our ongoing efforts to develop reversible inhibitors of LSD1, we identified a series of 4-(pyrrolidin-3-yl)benzonitrile derivatives that act as successful scaffold-hops of the literature inhibitor GSK-690. The most active compound, 21g, demonstrated a Kd value of 22nM and a biochemical IC50 of 57nM. In addition, this compound displayed improved selectivity over the hERG ion channel compared to GSK-690, and no activity against the related enzymes MAO-A and B. In human THP-1 acute myeloid leukaemia cells, 21g was found to increase the expression of the surrogate cellular biomarker CD86. This work further demonstrates the versatility of scaffold-hopping asa method to develop structurally diverse, potent inhibitors of LSD1.
Subject(s)
Enzyme Inhibitors/chemistry , Enzyme Inhibitors/pharmacology , Histone Demethylases/antagonists & inhibitors , Nitriles/chemistry , Nitriles/pharmacology , Binding Sites , Cell Line, Tumor , Drug Design , Enzyme Activation/drug effects , Enzyme Inhibitors/chemical synthesis , Histone Demethylases/metabolism , Humans , Inhibitory Concentration 50 , Molecular Docking Simulation , Nitriles/chemical synthesis , Protein Structure, Tertiary , Pyrrolidines/chemistry , Stereoisomerism , Structure-Activity RelationshipABSTRACT
Inhibition of lysine specific demethylase 1 (LSD1) has been shown to induce the differentiation of leukemia stem cells in acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Irreversible inhibitors developed from the nonspecific inhibitor tranylcypromine have entered clinical trials; however, the development of effective reversible inhibitors has proved more challenging. Herein, we describe our efforts to identify reversible inhibitors of LSD1 from a high throughput screen and subsequent in silico modeling approaches. From a single hit (12) validated by biochemical and biophysical assays, we describe our efforts to develop acyclic scaffold-hops from GSK-690 (1). A further scaffold modification to a (4-cyanophenyl)glycinamide (e.g., 29a) led to the development of compound 32, with a Kd value of 32 nM and an EC50 value of 0.67 µM in a surrogate cellular biomarker assay. Moreover, this derivative does not display the same level of hERG liability as observed with 1 and represents a promising lead for further development.
Subject(s)
Antineoplastic Agents/chemical synthesis , Antineoplastic Agents/pharmacology , Enzyme Inhibitors/chemical synthesis , Enzyme Inhibitors/pharmacology , Glycine/analogs & derivatives , Histone Demethylases/antagonists & inhibitors , Leukemia/drug therapy , Spiro Compounds/pharmacology , Biomarkers , Cell Line, Tumor , Computer Simulation , Drug Design , Drug Discovery , Ether-A-Go-Go Potassium Channels/drug effects , Glycine/chemical synthesis , Glycine/pharmacology , High-Throughput Screening Assays , Humans , Models, Molecular , Molecular Docking Simulation , Spiro Compounds/chemical synthesis , Structure-Activity Relationship , Tranylcypromine/analogs & derivatives , Tranylcypromine/chemistry , Tranylcypromine/pharmacologyABSTRACT
A series of reversible inhibitors of lysine specific demethylase 1 (LSD1) with a 5-hydroxypyrazole scaffold have been developed from compound 7, which was identified from the patent literature. Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and biochemical analysis showed it to be a reversible LSD1 inhibitor with an IC50 value of 0.23µM. Optimisation of this compound by rational design afforded compounds with Kd values of <10nM. In human THP-1 cells, these compounds were found to upregulate the expression of the surrogate cellular biomarker CD86. Compound 11p was found to have moderate oral bioavailability in mice suggesting its potential for use as an in vivo tool compound.
Subject(s)
Histone Demethylases/antagonists & inhibitors , Pyrazoles/chemistry , Animals , B7-2 Antigen/metabolism , Binding Sites , Catalytic Domain , Cell Differentiation/drug effects , Cell Line , Half-Life , Histone Demethylases/metabolism , Humans , Inhibitory Concentration 50 , Mice , Molecular Docking Simulation , Pyrazoles/chemical synthesis , Pyrazoles/pharmacokinetics , Pyrazoles/pharmacology , Structure-Activity Relationship , Surface Plasmon ResonanceABSTRACT
Deregulation of the receptor tyrosine kinase RET has been implicated in medullary thyroid cancer, a small percentage of lung adenocarcinomas, endocrine-resistant breast cancer and pancreatic cancer. There are several clinically approved multi-kinase inhibitors that target RET as a secondary pharmacology but additional activities, most notably inhibition of KDR, lead to dose-limiting toxicities. There is, therefore, a clinical need for more specific RET kinase inhibitors. Herein we report our efforts towards identifying a potent and selective RET inhibitor using vandetanib 1 as the starting point for structure-based drug design. Phenolic anilinoquinazolines exemplified by 6 showed improved affinities towards RET but, unsurprisingly, suffered from high metabolic clearance. Efforts to mitigate the metabolic liability of the phenol led to the discovery that a flanking substituent not only improved the hepatocyte stability, but could also impart a significant gain in selectivity. This culminated in the identification of 36; a potent RET inhibitor with much improved selectivity against KDR.
Subject(s)
Piperidines/chemistry , Piperidines/pharmacology , Protein Kinase Inhibitors/chemistry , Protein Kinase Inhibitors/pharmacology , Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-ret/antagonists & inhibitors , Quinazolines/chemistry , Quinazolines/pharmacology , Animals , Cell Line , Drug Design , Humans , Mice , Molecular Docking Simulation , Piperidines/pharmacokinetics , Protein Kinase Inhibitors/pharmacokinetics , Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-ret/metabolism , Quinazolines/pharmacokineticsABSTRACT
In the 10 years since the discovery of lysine-specific demethylase 1 (LSD1), this epigenetic eraser has emerged as an important target of interest in oncology. More specifically, research has demonstrated that it plays an essential role in the self-renewal of leukemic stem cells in acute myeloid leukemia (AML). This review will cover clinical aspects of AML, the role of epigenetics in the disease, and discuss the research that led to the first irreversible inhibitors of LSD1 entering clinical trials for the treatment of AML in 2014. We also review recent achievements and progress in the development of potent and selective reversible inhibitors of LSD1. These compounds differ in their mode of action from tranylcypromine derivatives and could facilitate novel biochemical studies to probe the pathways mediated by LSD1. In this review, we will critically evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of published series of reversible LSD1 inhibitors. Overall, while the development of reversible inhibitors to date has been less fruitful than that of irreversible inhibitors, there is still the possibility for their use to facilitate further research into the roles and functions of LSD1 and to expand the therapeutic applications of LSD1 inhibitors in the clinic.
Subject(s)
Histone Demethylases/chemistry , Leukemia, Myeloid, Acute/drug therapy , Lysine/chemistry , Animals , Antineoplastic Agents/chemistry , Drug Design , Drug Screening Assays, Antitumor , Epigenesis, Genetic , Gene Expression Regulation, Leukemic , Humans , Inhibitory Concentration 50 , Mice , Polyamines/chemistry , Treatment OutcomeABSTRACT
The recently discovered enzyme tyrosyl-DNA phosphodiesterase 2 (TDP2) has been implicated in the topoisomerase-mediated repair of DNA damage. In the clinical setting, it has been hypothesized that TDP2 may mediate drug resistance to topoisomerase II (topo II) inhibition by etoposide. Therefore, selective pharmacological inhibition of TDP2 is proposed as a novel approach to overcome intrinsic or acquired resistance to topo II-targeted drug therapy. Following a high-throughput screening (HTS) campaign, toxoflavins and deazaflavins were identified as the first reported sub-micromolar and selective inhibitors of this enzyme. Toxoflavin derivatives appeared to exhibit a clear structure-activity relationship (SAR) for TDP2 enzymatic inhibition. However, we observed a key redox liability of this series, and this, alongside early in vitro drug metabolism and pharmacokinetics (DMPK) issues, precluded further exploration. The deazaflavins were developed from a singleton HTS hit. This series showed distinct SAR and did not display redox activity; however low cell permeability proved to be a challenge.
