Estimation of enteric methane emission factors for Ndama cattle in the Sudanian zone of Senegal.

Methane (CH4) emission estimations for cattle in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) reflect limited production levels and diets that are high in cellulose forage. However, data on these livestock systems is lacking for their accurate evaluation. To provide guidance for climate change mitigation strategies in Senegal, it is necessary to obtain reliable estimates of CH4 emissions from Ndama cattle reared in grazing systems, which is the predominant cattle system in the country. The objective of this study was to determine the annual methane emission factor (MEF) for enteric fermentation of Ndama cattle following the IPCC Tier 2 procedure. Our estimated annual MEF at the herd scale was 30.8 kg CH4/TLU (30.7 kg CH4/head/yr for lactating cows and 15.1 kg CH4/head/yr for other cattle). These values are well below the default IPCC emission factor (46 and 31 kg CH4/head/yr for dairy and other cattle, respectively) proposed in the Tier 1 method for Africa. Our study showed that feed digestibility values differ with season (from 46 to 64%). We also showed that cattle lose weight and adapt to lower feed requirements during the long dry season, with a resulting major reduction in methane emissions. The results of this work provide a new framework to re-estimate the contribution of grazing systems to methane emissions in Africa.

Rangeland Rummy - a board game to support adaptive management of rangeland-based livestock systems.

Rangeland-based livestock systems have to deal with the significant instability and uncertainty of the agricultural context (policy changes, volatility of input prices, etc.), and especially of the climatic context. Thus, they are particularly concerned by adaptive management strategies. To support the development of such strategies, we developed a board game including a computer model called "Rangeland Rummy". It is to be used by groups of farmers and agricultural consultants in the context of short workshops (about 3 h). Rangeland Rummy builds upon five types of material object: (i) a game board; (ii) a calendar stick indicating the starting date of the game board; (iii) sticks marked with the feed resources available for combinations of vegetation types and their management practices; (iv) cards to define animal groups and their feeding requirements throughout the year; (v) cards related to types of feed that can be attributed to animal groups throughout the year. Using these material objects, farmers collectively design a rangeland-based livestock system. This system is immediately evaluated using a computer model, i.e. a spreadsheet providing graphs and indicators providing information on, among other things, the extent to which quantitative and qualitative animal feeding requirements are covered across the year. Playing the game thus consists in collectively and iteratively designing and evaluating rangeland-based livestock systems, while confronting the players with new contextual challenges (e.g. interannual variability of weather, volatility of input prices) or new farmers' objectives (e.g. being self-sufficient for animal feeding). An example of application of Rangeland Rummy with 3 farmers in southern France is reported. Applications show that it tends to develop farmers' adaptive capacity by stimulating their discussions and the exchange of locally-relevant knowledge on management strategies and practices in rangeland-based livestock systems.

Involvement of small-scale dairy farms in an industrial supply chain: when production standards meet farm diversity.

In certain contexts, dairy firms are supplied by small-scale family farms. Firms provide a set of technical and economic recommendations meant to help farmers meet their requirements in terms of the quantity and quality of milk collected. This study analyzes how such recommendations may be adopted by studying six farms in Brazil. All farms are beneficiaries of the country's agrarian reforms, but they differ in terms of how they developed their activities, their resources and their milk collection objectives. First, we built a technical and economic benchmark farm based on recommendations from a dairy firm and farmer advisory institutions. Our analysis of the farms' practices and technical and economic results show that none of the farms in the sample apply all of the benchmark recommendations; however, all farms specialized in dairy production observe the main underlying principles with regard to feeding systems and breeding. The decisive factors in whether the benchmark is adopted and successfully implemented are (i) access to the supply chain when a farmer establishes his activity, (ii) a grasp of reproduction and forage production techniques and (iii) an understanding of dairy cattle feed dietary rationing principles. The technical problems observed in some cases impact the farms' dairy performance and cash position; this can lead to a process of disinvestment. This dynamic of farms facing production standards suggests that the diversity of specialized livestock farmers should be taken into account more effectively through advisory approaches that combine basic zootechnical training with assistance in planning farm activities over the short and medium term.

The herd, a source of flexibility for livestock farming systems faced with uncertainties?

'Adapt to endure' has become a necessity in agriculture, but the means to do so remain largely undefined. The aim of this literature review is to analyse how the herd contributes to a livestock farming system's capacity to adapt to a changing world and evolve when the future is uncertain. We identify six categories of elements linked to the herd, called 'sources of flexibility', that are used to manage perturbation. The first three are: using the animal's adaptive capacities, using the diversity of species and breeds and combining the diversity of animal products. The last three are: organising the mobility of animals and livestock farmers, juggling the herd numbers and mastering the balance between productivity and herd survival. These sources of flexibility are described in the literature by studying the different ways in which they are used. For example, the 'juggle herd numbers' source is described by volume, categories of animals, type of transfer, such as births, purchases or gifts, and timing of use, especially linked to the timing of the perturbation. Identified studies also compare or rank sources and analyse the connections between them. The flexibility framework (management science) is used for this analysis according to the levels of organisation of a livestock farming system: a strategic level referring to long-term options and to the capacity to modify the system structure, and an operational level referring to adjustment decisions during the productive cycle, the presence or absence of intervention by the livestock farmer, and the time scales involved. We conclude that the decision to use one or another source (in terms of modalities, alternatives, scheduling and combinations) is made according to the production objectives, the structural means, the type/frequency/intensity of perturbations and the context/environment. Consequently, the flexibility of a livestock farming system cannot be assessed in absolute terms. Enhancing flexibility needs management of all elements and scales involved (and not only the herd), and requires diversity to be organised at different scales.

Rangeland utilization in Mediterranean farming systems.

In the countries surrounding the Mediterranean basin, most of the semi-natural grazing lands are covered by rangelands. Rangelands can be defined as highly heterogeneous natural vegetation communities with high conservation value, growing in harsh environments (poor soils, unfavourable climatic conditions). In the recent socio-economic context, traditional livestock grazing practices that enabled one to reconcile rangeland preservation and animal production no longer apply, especially because they require labour that has become scarce and costly. The consequence is rangeland degradation, due to underutilization in Southern Europe, and overutilization in Northern Africa. We analysed issues raised by rangeland utilization in livestock farming systems of the Mediterranean basin. Based on a review of the scientific literature about rangeland utilization in this area, we argue that the best way to reconcile animal production and rangeland preservation would be to promote management practices allowing animals to express their adaptative capacities in feeding behaviour and productive response. In order to propose management practices adapted to extensive and simplified systems, we conclude that research efforts should focus on: (i) proposing a functional characterization of vegetation heterogeneity at the scale of the vegetation community, (ii) validating the criteria determining animals' foraging behaviour on Mediterranean rangelands, (iii) developing and using simulation models to test management strategies against seasonal and long-term variability in climatic conditions and (iv) evaluating the potential of modern technologies for improving rangeland utilization.