Optimized protocols for RNA interference in Macrostomum lignano.

Macrostomum lignano, a marine free-living flatworm, has emerged as a potent invertebrate model in developmental biology for studying stem cells, germline, and regeneration processes. In recent years, many tools have been developed to manipulate this worm and to facilitate genetic modification. RNA interference is currently the most accessible and direct technique to investigate gene functions. It is obtained by soaking worms in artificial seawater containing dsRNA targeting the gene of interest. Although easy to perform, the original protocol calls for daily exchange of dsRNA solutions, usually until phenotypes are observed, which is both time- and cost-consuming. In this work, we have evaluated alternative dsRNA delivery techniques, such as electroporation and osmotic shock, to facilitate the experiments with improved time and cost efficiency. During our investigation to optimize RNAi, we demonstrated that, in the absence of diatoms, regular single soaking in artificial seawater containing dsRNA directly produced in bacteria or synthesized in vitro is, in most cases, sufficient to induce a potent gene knockdown for several days with a single soaking step. Therefore, this new and highly simplified method allows a very significant reduction of dsRNA consumption and lab work. In addition, it enables performing experiments on a larger number of worms at minimal cost.

Genome assembly of the acoel flatworm Symsagittifera roscoffensis, a model for research on body plan evolution and photosymbiosis.

Symsagittifera roscoffensis is a well-known member of the order Acoela that lives in symbiosis with the algae Tetraselmis convolutae during its adult stage. Its natural habitat is the eastern coast of the Atlantic, where at specific locations thousands of individuals can be found, mostly, lying in large pools on the surface of sand at low tide. As a member of the Acoela it has been thought as a proxy for ancestral bilaterian animals; however, its phylogenetic position remains still debated. In order to understand the basic structural characteristics of the acoel genome, we sequenced and assembled the genome of aposymbiotic species S. roscoffensis. The size of this genome was measured to be in the range of 910-940 Mb. Sequencing of the genome was performed using PacBio Hi-Fi technology. Hi-C and RNA-seq data were also generated to scaffold and annotate it. The resulting assembly is 1.1 Gb large (covering 118% of the estimated genome size) and highly continuous, with N50 scaffold size of 1.04 Mb. The repetitive fraction of the genome is 61%, of which 85% (half of the genome) are LTR retrotransposons. Genome-guided transcriptome assembly identified 34,493 genes, of which 29,351 are protein coding (BUSCO score 97.6%), and 30.2% of genes are spliced leader trans-spliced. The completeness of this genome suggests that it can be used extensively to characterize gene families and conduct accurate phylogenomic reconstructions.

Proof of principle for piggyBac-mediated transgenesis in the flatworm Macrostomum lignano.

Regeneration-capable flatworms are informative research models to study the mechanisms of stem cell regulation, regeneration, and tissue patterning. The free-living flatworm Macrostomum lignano is currently the only flatworm where stable transgenesis is available, and as such it offers a powerful experimental platform to address questions that were previously difficult to answer. The published transgenesis approach relies on random integration of DNA constructs into the genome. Despite its efficiency, there is room and need for further improvement and diversification of transgenesis methods in M. lignano. Transposon-mediated transgenesis is an alternative approach, enabling easy mapping of the integration sites and the possibility of insertional mutagenesis studies. Here, we report for the first time that transposon-mediated transgenesis using piggyBac can be performed in M. lignano to create stable transgenic lines with single-copy transgene insertions.

TIM29 is required for enhanced stem cell activity during regeneration in the flatworm Macrostomum lignano.

TIM29 is a mitochondrial inner membrane protein that interacts with the protein import complex TIM22. TIM29 was shown to stabilize the TIM22 complex but its biological function remains largely unknown. Until recently, it was classified as one of the Domain of Unknown Function (DUF) genes, with a conserved protein domain DUF2366 of unclear function. Since characterizing DUF genes can provide novel biological insight, we used previously established transcriptional profiles of the germline and stem cells of the flatworm Macrostomum lignano to probe conserved DUFs for their potential role in germline biology, stem cell function, regeneration, and development. Here, we demonstrate that DUF2366/TIM29 knockdown in M. lignano has very limited effect during the normal homeostatic condition but prevents worms from adapting to a highly proliferative state required for regeneration.

The free-living flatworm Macrostomum lignano.

Macrostomum lignano is a free-living flatworm that is emerging as an attractive experimental animal for research on a broad range of biological questions. One feature setting it apart from other flatworms is the successful establishment of transgenesis methods, facilitated by a steady supply of eggs in the form of single-cell zygotes that can be readily manipulated. This, in combination with the transparency of the animal and its small size, creates practical advantages for imaging and fluorescence-activated cell sorting in studies related to stem cell biology and regeneration. M. lignano can regenerate most of its body parts, including the germline, thanks to the neoblasts, which represent the flatworm stem cell system. Interestingly, neoblasts seem to have a high capacity of cellular maintenance, as M. lignano can survive up to 210 Gy of γ-irradiation, and partially offset the negative consequence of ageing. As a non-self-fertilizing simultaneous hermaphrodite that reproduces in a sexual manner, M. lignano is also used to study sexual selection and other evolutionary aspects of sexual reproduction. Work over the past several years has led to the development of molecular resources and tools, including high-quality genome and transcriptome assemblies, transcriptional profiling of the germline and somatic neoblasts, gene knockdown, and in situ hybridization. The increasingly detailed characterization of this animal has also resulted in novel research questions, such as bio-adhesion based on its adhesion-release glands and genome evolution due to its recent whole-genome duplication.

A carcinogenic trigger to study the function of tumor suppressor genes in Schmidtea mediterranea.

Planarians have been long known for their regenerative ability, which hinges on pluripotency. Recently, however, the planarian model has been successfully established for routine toxicological screens aimed to assess overproliferation, mutagenicity and tumorigenesis. In this study, we focused on planarian tumor suppressor genes (TSGs) and their role during chemically induced carcinogenic stress in Schmidtea mediterranea Combining in silico and proteomic screens with exposure to human carcinogen type 1A agent cadmium (Cd), we showed that many TSGs have a function in stem cells and that, in general, exposure to Cd accelerated the onset and increased the severity of the observed phenotype. This suggested that the interaction between environmental and genetic factors plays an important role in tumor development in S. mediterranea Therefore, we further focused on the synergistic effects of Cd exposure and p53 knockdown (KD) at the cellular and molecular levels. Cd also produced a specific proteomic landscape in homeostatic animals, with 172 proteins differentially expressed, 43 of which were downregulated. Several of these proteins have tumor suppressor function in human and other animals, namely Wilms Tumor 1 Associated Protein (WT1), Heat Shock Protein 90 (HSP90), Glioma Pathogenesis-Related Protein 1 (GLIPR1) and Matrix Metalloproteinase B (Smed-MMPB). Both Glipr1 and MmpB KD produced large outgrowths, epidermal lesions and epidermal blisters. The epidermal blisters that formed as a consequence of Smed-MmpB KD were populated by smedwi1+ cells, many of which were actively proliferating, while large outgrowths contained ectopically differentiated structures, such as photoreceptors, nervous tissue and a small pharynx. In conclusion, Smed-MmpB is a planarian TSG that prevents stem cell proliferation and differentiation outside the proper milieu.

The regenerative flatworm Macrostomum lignano, a model organism with high experimental potential.

Understanding the process of regeneration has been one of the longstanding scientific aims, from a fundamental biological perspective, as well as within the applied context of regenerative medicine. Because regeneration competence varies greatly between organisms, it is essential to investigate different experimental animals. The free-living marine flatworm Macrostomum lignano is a rising model organism for this type of research, and its power stems from a unique set of biological properties combined with amenability to experimental manipulation. The biological properties of interest include production of single-cell fertilized eggs, a transparent body, small size, short generation time, ease of culture, the presence of a pluripotent stem cell population, and a large regeneration competence. These features sparked the development of molecular tools and resources for this animal, including high-quality genome and transcriptome assemblies, gene knockdown, in situ hybridization, and transgenesis. Importantly, M. lignano is currently the only flatworm species for which transgenesis methods are established. This review summarizes biological features of M. lignano and recent technological advances towards experimentation with this animal. In addition, we discuss the experimental potential of this model organism for different research questions related to regeneration and stem cell biology.

Resilience to aging in the regeneration-capable flatworm Macrostomum lignano.

Animals show a large variability of lifespan, ranging from short-lived as Caenorhabditis elegans to immortal as Hydra. A fascinating case is flatworms, in which reversal of aging by regeneration is proposed, yet conclusive evidence for this rejuvenation-by-regeneration hypothesis is lacking. We tested this hypothesis by inducing regeneration in the sexual free-living flatworm Macrostomum lignano. We studied survival, fertility, morphology, and gene expression as a function of age. Here, we report that after regeneration, genes expressed in the germline are upregulated at all ages, but no signs of rejuvenation are observed. Instead, the animal appears to be substantially longer lived than previously appreciated, and genes expressed in stem cells are upregulated with age, while germline genes are downregulated. Remarkably, several genes with known beneficial effects on lifespan when overexpressed in mice and C. elegans are naturally upregulated with age in M. lignano, suggesting that molecular mechanism for offsetting negative consequences of aging has evolved in this animal. We therefore propose that M. lignano represents a novel powerful model for molecular studies of aging attenuation, and the identified aging gene expression patterns provide a valuable resource for further exploration of anti-aging strategies.

A novel flatworm-specific gene implicated in reproduction in Macrostomum lignano.

Free-living flatworms, such as the planarian Schmidtea mediterranea, are extensively used as model organisms to study stem cells and regeneration. The majority of flatworm studies so far focused on broadly conserved genes. However, investigating what makes these animals different is equally informative for understanding its biology and might have biomedical value. We re-analyzed the neoblast and germline transcriptional signatures of the flatworm M. lignano using an improved transcriptome assembly and show that germline-enriched genes have a high fraction of flatworm-specific genes. We further identified the Mlig-sperm1 gene as a member of a novel gene family conserved only in free-living flatworms and essential for producing healthy spermatozoa. In addition, we established a whole-animal electron microscopy atlas (nanotomy) to visualize the ultrastructure of the testes in wild type worms, but also as a reference platform for different ultrastructural studies in M. lignano. This work demonstrates that investigation of flatworm-specific genes is crucial for understanding flatworm biology and establishes a basis for such future research in M. lignano.

Efficient transgenesis and annotated genome sequence of the regenerative flatworm model Macrostomum lignano.

Regeneration-capable flatworms are informative research models to study the mechanisms of stem cell regulation, regeneration, and tissue patterning. However, the lack of transgenesis methods considerably hampers their wider use. Here we report development of a transgenesis method for Macrostomum lignano, a basal flatworm with excellent regeneration capacity. We demonstrate that microinjection of DNA constructs into fertilized one-cell stage eggs, followed by a low dose of irradiation, frequently results in random integration of the transgene in the genome and its stable transmission through the germline. To facilitate selection of promoter regions for transgenic reporters, we assembled and annotated the M. lignano genome, including genome-wide mapping of transcription start regions, and show its utility by generating multiple stable transgenic lines expressing fluorescent proteins under several tissue-specific promoters. The reported transgenesis method and annotated genome sequence will permit sophisticated genetic studies on stem cells and regeneration using M. lignano as a model organism.

Transcriptional signatures of somatic neoblasts and germline cells in Macrostomum lignano.

The regeneration-capable flatworm Macrostomum lignano is a powerful model organism to study the biology of stem cells in vivo. As a flatworm amenable to transgenesis, it complements the historically used planarian flatworm models, such as Schmidtea mediterranea. However, information on the transcriptome and markers of stem cells in M. lignano is limited. We generated a de novo transcriptome assembly and performed the first comprehensive characterization of gene expression in the proliferating cells of M. lignano, represented by somatic stem cells, called neoblasts, and germline cells. Knockdown of a selected set of neoblast genes, including Mlig-ddx39, Mlig-rrm1, Mlig-rpa3, Mlig-cdk1, and Mlig-h2a, confirmed their crucial role for the functionality of somatic neoblasts during homeostasis and regeneration. The generated M. lignano transcriptome assembly and gene expression signatures of somatic neoblasts and germline cells will be a valuable resource for future molecular studies in M. lignano.

Guanine quadruplex structures localize to heterochromatin.

Increasing amounts of data support a role for guanine quadruplex (G4) DNA and RNA structures in various cellular processes. We stained different organisms with monoclonal antibody 1H6 specific for G4 DNA. Strikingly, immuno-electron microscopy showed exquisite specificity for heterochromatin. Polytene chromosomes from Drosophila salivary glands showed bands that co-localized with heterochromatin proteins HP1 and the SNF2 domain-containing protein SUUR. Staining was retained in SUUR knock-out mutants but lost upon overexpression of SUUR. Somatic cells in Macrostomum lignano were strongly labeled, but pluripotent stem cells labeled weakly. Similarly, germline stem cells in Drosophila ovaries were weakly labeled compared to most other cells. The unexpected presence of G4 structures in heterochromatin and the difference in G4 staining between somatic cells and stem cells with germline DNA in ciliates, flatworms, flies and mammals point to a conserved role for G4 structures in nuclear organization and cellular differentiation.

Stem cells propagate their DNA by random segregation in the flatworm Macrostomum lignano.

Adult stem cells are proposed to have acquired special features to prevent an accumulation of DNA-replication errors. Two such mechanisms, frequently suggested to serve this goal are cellular quiescence, and non-random segregation of DNA strands during stem cell division, a theory designated as the immortal strand hypothesis. To date, it has been difficult to test the in vivo relevance of both mechanisms in stem cell systems. It has been shown that in the flatworm Macrostomum lignano pluripotent stem cells (neoblasts) are present in adult animals. We sought to address by which means M. lignano neoblasts protect themselves against the accumulation of genomic errors, by studying the exact mode of DNA-segregation during their division. In this study, we demonstrated four lines of in vivo evidence in favor of cellular quiescence. Firstly, performing BrdU pulse-chase experiments, we localized 'Label-Retaining Cells' (LRCs). Secondly, EDU pulse-chase combined with Vasa labeling demonstrated the presence of neoblasts among the LRCs, while the majority of LRCs were differentiated cells. We showed that stem cells lose their label at a slow rate, indicating cellular quiescence. Thirdly, CldU/IdU- double labeling studies confirmed that label-retaining stem cells showed low proliferative activity. Finally, the use of the actin inhibitor, cytochalasin D, unequivocally demonstrated random segregation of DNA-strands in LRCs. Altogether, our data unambiguously demonstrated that the majority of neoblasts in M. lignano distribute their DNA randomly during cell division, and that label-retention is a direct result of cellular quiescence, rather than a sign of co-segregation of labeled strands.

Lack of metabolic ageing in the long-lived flatworm Schmidtea polychroa.

Freshwater planarians have a large totipotent stem cell population allowing high rates of cell renewal and morphological plasticity. It is often suggested that they are able to rejuvenate during fission, regeneration and starvation. These features, together with the rapidly expanding molecular toolset, make planarians such as Schmidtea polychroa and S. mediterranea interesting for ageing research. Yet, the basic demographic and physiological data are lacking or still based on fragmentary observations of one century ago. Here, we present the first longitudinal physiological study of the species S. polychroa. Survival, size and metabolic rate, measured by microcalorimetry, of a cohort of 28 individuals were followed over a period of three years. Sexual maturity was reached during the second month after which the worms continued growing up to 5 months. This initial growth phase was followed by alternating periods of synchronised growth and degrowth. Although mass-specific metabolic rates declined during the initial growth phase, no changes were found later in life. The absence of metabolic ageing may be explained by the very high rate of cell renewal during homeostasis and alternating phases of degrowth and growth during which tissues are renewed. Surprisingly, all deaths occurred in pairs of worms that were housed in the same culture recipient, suggesting that worms did not die from ageing. Taking into account the metabolic and demographic data, we suggest that S. polychroa shows negligible ageing. Detailed analyses of size and metabolic rate revealed a remarkable biphasic allometric scaling relation. During the initial growth phase (months 1-5) the allometric scaling exponent b was 0.86 while later in life, it increased to an unusually large value of 1.17, indicating that mass-specific metabolic rate increases with size in adult S. polychroa.

Embryonic origins of hull cells in the flatworm Macrostomum lignano through cell lineage analysis: developmental and phylogenetic implications.

The development of macrostomid flatworms is of interest for evolutionary developmental biology research because these taxa combine characteristics of the canonical spiral cleavage pattern with significant deviations from this pattern. One such deviation is the formation of hull cells, which surround the remaining embryonic primordium during early development. Using live observations with a 4D microscope system, histology, and 3D reconstructions, we analyzed the ontogeny of these hull cells in the macrostomid model organism Macrostomum lignano. Our cell lineage analysis allowed us to find the precursors of the hull cells in this species. We discuss the relation between macrostomid development and the development of other spiralians and the question of whether hull cells are homologous within rhabditophoran flatworms.

Demographic analysis reveals gradual senescence in the flatworm Macrostomum lignano.

Free-living flatworms ("Turbellaria") are appropriate model organisms to gain better insight into the role of stem cells in ageing and rejuvenation. Ageing research in flatworms is, however, still scarce. This is partly due to culture difficulties and the lack of a complete set of demographic data, including parameters such as median lifespan and age-specific mortality rate. In this paper, we report on the first flatworm survival analysis. We used the species Macrostomum lignano, which is an emerging model for studying the reciprocal influence between stem cells, ageing and rejuvenation. This species has a median lifespan of 205 +/- 13 days (average +/- standard deviation [SD]) and a 90th percentile lifespan of 373 +/- 32 days. The maximum lifespan, however, is more than 745 days, and the average survival curve is characterised by a long tail because a small number of individuals lives twice as long as 90% of the population. Similar to earlier observations in a wide range of animals, in M. lignano the age-specific mortality rate increases exponentially, but levels off at the oldest ages. To compare the senescence of M. lignano with that of other ageing models, we determined the mortality rate doubling time, which is 0.20 +/- 0.02 years. As a result, we can conclude that M. lignano shows gradual senescence at a rate similar to the vertebrate ageing models Rattus norvegicus and Mus musculus. We argue that M. lignano is a suitable model for ageing and rejuvenation research, and especially for the role of stem cells in these processes, due to its accessible stem cell system and regeneration capacity, and the possibility of combining stem cell studies with demographic analyses.

The free-living flatworm Macrostomum lignano: a new model organism for ageing research.

To study the several elements and causes of ageing, diverse model organisms and methodologies are required. The most frequently used models are Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Caenorhabditis elegans, Drosophila melanogaster and rodents. All have their advantages and disadvantages and allow studying particular aspects of the ageing process. During the last few years, several ageing studies focussed on stem cells and their role in tissue homeostasis. Here we present a new model organism which can study this relation where other model systems fail. The flatworm Macrostomum lignano possesses a dynamic population of likely totipotent somatic stem cells known as neoblasts. Several characteristics qualify M. lignano as a suitable model system for ageing studies in general and more specifically for gaining more insight in the causal relation between stem cells, ageing and rejuvenation. In this review, we will briefly describe the species and its life history, and discuss the role of its stem cells in ageing and rejuvenation. We also give an overview of the available experimental tools that allow a multidisciplinary approach for studying ageing in M. lignano.

Ontogeny of the complex sperm in the macrostomid flatworm Macrostomum lignano (Macrostomorpha, Rhabditophora).

Spermiogenesis in Macrostomum lignano (Macrostomorpha, Rhabditophora) is described using light- and electron microscopy of the successive stages in sperm development. Ovoid spermatids develop to highly complex, elongated sperm possessing an undulating distal (anterior) process (or "feeler"), bristles, and a proximal (posterior) brush. In particular, we present a detailed account of the morphology and ontogeny of the bristles, describing for the first time the formation of a highly specialized bristle complex consisting of several parts. This complex is ultimately reduced when sperm are mature. The implications of the development of this bristle complex on both sperm maturation and the evolution and function of the bristles are discussed. The assumed homology between bristles and flagellae questioned.