Synthesis, modeling, and biological evaluation of anti-tubulin indole-substituted furanones.

Due to the central role of tubulin in various cellular functions, it is a validated target for anti-cancer therapeutics. However, many of the current tubulin inhibitors are derived from complex natural products and suffer from multidrug resistance, low solubility, toxicity issues, and/or the lack of multi-cancer efficacy. As such, there is a continued need for the discovery and development of new anti-tubulin drugs to enter the pipeline. Herein we report on a group of indole-substituted furanones that were prepared and tested for anti-cancer activity. Molecular docking studies showed positive correlations between favorable binding in the colchicine binding site (CBS) of tubulin and anti-proliferative activity, and the most potent compound was found to inhibit tubulin polymerization. These compounds represent a promising new structural motif in the search for small heterocyclic CBS cancer inhibitors.

Discovery of an indole-substituted furanone with tubulin polymerization inhibition activity.

Analogs of diarylpyrrolinone lead compound 1 were prepared and tested for anti-proliferative activity in U-937 cancer cells. Alterations of 1 focused on modifying the two nitrogen atoms: a) the pyrrolinone nitrogen atom was substituted with a propyl group or replaced with an oxygen atom (furanone), and b) the substituents on the indole nitrogen were varied. These changes led to the discovery of a furanone analog 3b with sub-micromolar anti-cancer potency and tubulin polymerization inhibition activity.

Characterization of the Xylella fastidiosa PD1311 gene mutant and its suppression of Pierce's disease on grapevines.

Xylella fastidiosa causes Pierce's disease (PD) on grapevines, leading to significant economic losses in grape and wine production. To further our understanding of X. fastidiosa virulence on grapevines, we examined the PD1311 gene, which encodes a putative acyl-coenzyme A (acyl-CoA) synthetase, and is highly conserved across Xylella species. It was determined that PD1311 is required for virulence, as the deletion mutant, ΔPD1311, was unable to cause disease on grapevines. The ΔPD1311 strain was impaired in behaviours known to be associated with PD development, including motility, aggregation and biofilm formation. ΔPD1311 also expressed enhanced sensitivity to H2 O2 and polymyxin B, and showed reduced survival in grapevine sap, when compared with wild-type X. fastidiosa Temecula 1 (TM1). Following inoculation, ΔPD1311 could not be detected in grape shoots, which may be related to its altered growth and sensitivity phenotypes. Inoculation with ΔPD1311 2 weeks prior to TM1 prevented the development of PD in a significant fraction of vines and eliminated detectable levels of TM1. In contrast, vines inoculated simultaneously with TM1 and ΔPD1311 developed disease at the same level as TM1 alone. In these vines, TM1 populations were distributed similarly to populations in TM1-only inoculated plants. These findings suggest that, through an indirect mechanism, pretreatment of vines with ΔPD1311 suppresses pathogen population and disease.

Synthesis and evaluation of the anti-proliferative activity of diaryl-3-pyrrolin-2-ones and fused analogs.

Analogs containing a central 3-pyrrolin-2-one core with different methoxyphenyl and/or indole substituents were prepared and tested for anti-proliferative activity in U-937 cells. The most efficacious analogs were non-rigid, (non-fused) contained methoxyaryl groups located at the 4-position, and contained either methoxyaryl or indole groups located at the 3-position. Both the number of methoxy groups contained in the substituents and the particular location of the indole rings with respect to the lactam carbonyl had significant affects on anti-proliferative activity. This work provides a framework to better understand structure-activity relationships for inducing anti-proliferative activity in diaryl heterocyclic scaffolds.

Grape Cultivar and Sap Culture Conditions Affect the Development of Xylella fastidiosa Phenotypes Associated with Pierce's Disease.

Xylella fastidiosa is a xylem-limited bacterium in plant hosts and causes Pierce's disease (PD) of grapevines, which differ in susceptibility according to the Vitis species (spp.). In this work we compared X. fastidiosa biofilm formation and population dynamics when cultured in xylem saps from PD-susceptible and -resistant Vitis spp. under different conditions. Behaviors in a closed-culture system were compared to those in different sap-renewal cultures that would more closely mimic the physicochemical environment encountered in planta. Significant differences in biofilm formation and growth in saps from PD-susceptible and -resistant spp. were only observed using sap renewal culture. Compared to saps from susceptible V. vinifera, those from PD-resistant V. aestivalis supported lower titers of X. fastidiosa and less biofilm and V. champinii suppressed both growth and biofilm formation, behaviors which are correlated with disease susceptibility. Furthermore, in microfluidic chambers X. fastidiosa formed thick mature biofilm with three-dimensional (3-D) structures, such as pillars and mounds, in saps from all susceptible spp. In contrast, only small aggregates of various shapes were formed in saps from four out of five of the resistant spp.; sap from the resistant spp. V. mustangensis was an exception in that it also supported thick lawns of biofilm but not the above described 3-D structures typically seen in a mature biofilm from the susceptible saps. Our findings provide not only critical technical information for future bioassays, but also suggest further understanding of PD susceptibility.

Chemotactic Signaling by Single-Chain Chemoreceptors.

Bacterial chemoreceptors of the methyl-accepting chemotaxis protein (MCP) family operate in commingled clusters that enable cells to detect and track environmental chemical gradients with high sensitivity and precision. MCP homodimers of different detection specificities form mixed trimers of dimers that facilitate inter-receptor communication in core signaling complexes, which in turn assemble into a large signaling network. The two subunits of each homodimeric receptor molecule occupy different locations in the core complexes. One subunit participates in trimer-stabilizing interactions at the trimer axis, the other lies on the periphery of the trimer, where it can interact with two cytoplasmic proteins: CheA, a signaling autokinase, and CheW, which couples CheA activity to receptor control. As a possible tool for independently manipulating receptor subunits in these two structural environments, we constructed and characterized fused genes for the E. coli serine chemoreceptor Tsr that encoded single-chain receptor molecules in which the C-terminus of the first Tsr subunit was covalently connected to the N-terminus of the second with a polypeptide linker. We showed with soft agar assays and with a FRET-based in vivo CheA kinase assay that single-chain Tsr~Tsr molecules could promote serine sensing and chemotaxis responses. The length of the connection between the joined subunits was critical. Linkers nine residues or shorter locked the receptor in a kinase-on state, most likely by distorting the native structure of the receptor HAMP domain. Linkers 22 or more residues in length permitted near-normal Tsr function. Few single-chain molecules were found as monomer-sized proteolytic fragments in cells, indicating that covalently joined receptor subunits were responsible for mediating the signaling responses we observed. However, cysteine-directed crosslinking, spoiling by dominant-negative Tsr subunits, and rearrangement of ligand-binding site lesions revealed subunit swapping interactions that will need to be taken into account in experimental applications of single-chain chemoreceptors.

Potential complications when developing gene deletion clones in Xylella fastidiosa.

BACKGROUND: The Gram-negative xylem-limited bacterium, Xylella fastidiosa, is an important plant pathogen that infects a number of high value crops. The Temecula 1 strain infects grapevines and induces Pierce's disease, which causes symptoms such as scorching on leaves, cluster collapse, and eventual plant death. In order to understand the pathogenesis of X. fastidiosa, researchers routinely perform gene deletion studies and select mutants via antibiotic markers. METHODS: Site-directed pilJ mutant of X. fastidiosa were generated and selected on antibiotic media. Mutant cultures were assessed by PCR to determine if they were composed of purely transformant cells or included mixtures of non-transformants cells. Then pure pilJ mutant and wildtype cells were mixed in PD2 medium and following incubation and exposure to kanamycin were assessed by PCR for presence of mutant and wildtype populations. RESULTS: We have discovered that when creating clones of targeted mutants of X. fastidiosa Temecula 1 with selection on antibiotic plates, X. fastidiosa lacking the gene deletion often persist in association with targeted mutant cells. We believe this phenomenon is due to spontaneous antibiotic resistance and/or X. fastidiosa characteristically forming aggregates that can be comprised of transformed and non-transformed cells. A combined population was confirmed by PCR, which showed that targeted mutant clones were mixed with non-transformed cells. After repeated transfer and storage the non-transformed cells became the dominant clone present. CONCLUSIONS: We have discovered that special precautions are warranted when developing a targeted gene mutation in X. fastidiosa because colonies that arise following transformation and selection are often comprised of transformed and non-transformed cells. Following transfer and storage the cells can consist primarily of the non-transformed strain. As a result, careful monitoring of targeted mutant strains must be performed to avoid mixed populations and confounding results.

Characterization of the Xylella fastidiosa PD1671 gene encoding degenerate c-di-GMP GGDEF/EAL domains, and its role in the development of Pierce's disease.

Xylella fastidiosa is an important phytopathogenic bacterium that causes many serious plant diseases including Pierce's disease of grapevines. X. fastidiosa is thought to induce disease by colonizing and clogging xylem vessels through the formation of cell aggregates and bacterial biofilms. Here we examine the role in X. fastidiosa virulence of an uncharacterized gene, PD1671, annotated as a two-component response regulator with potential GGDEF and EAL domains. GGDEF domains are found in c-di-GMP diguanylate cyclases while EAL domains are found in phosphodiesterases, and these domains are for c-di-GMP production and turnover, respectively. Functional analysis of the PD1671 gene revealed that it affected multiple X. fastidiosa virulence-related phenotypes. A Tn5 PD1671 mutant had a hypervirulent phenotype in grapevines presumably due to enhanced expression of gum genes leading to increased exopolysaccharide levels that resulted in elevated biofilm formation. Interestingly, the PD1671 mutant also had decreased motility in vitro but did not show a reduced distribution in grapevines following inoculation. Given these responses, the putative PD1671 protein may be a negative regulator of X. fastidiosa virulence.

Identification of an operon, Pil-Chp, that controls twitching motility and virulence in Xylella fastidiosa.

Xylella fastidiosa is an important phytopathogenic bacterium that causes many serious plant diseases, including Pierce's disease of grapevines. Disease manifestation by X. fastidiosa is associated with the expression of several factors, including the type IV pili that are required for twitching motility. We provide evidence that an operon, named Pil-Chp, with genes homologous to those found in chemotaxis systems, regulates twitching motility. Transposon insertion into the pilL gene of the operon resulted in loss of twitching motility (pilL is homologous to cheA genes encoding kinases). The X. fastidiosa mutant maintained the type IV pili, indicating that the disrupted pilL or downstream operon genes are involved in pili function, and not biogenesis. The mutated X. fastidiosa produced less biofilm than wild-type cells, indicating that the operon contributes to biofilm formation. Finally, in planta the mutant produced delayed and less severe disease, indicating that the Pil-Chp operon contributes to the virulence of X. fastidiosa, presumably through its role in twitching motility.

Different signaling roles of two conserved residues in the cytoplasmic hairpin tip of Tsr, the Escherichia coli serine chemoreceptor.

Bacterial chemoreceptors form ternary signaling complexes with the histidine kinase CheA through the coupling protein CheW. Receptor complexes in turn cluster into cellular arrays that produce highly sensitive responses to chemical stimuli. In Escherichia coli, receptors of different types form mixed trimer-of-dimers signaling teams through the tips of their highly conserved cytoplasmic domains. To explore the possibility that the hairpin loop at the tip of the trimer contact region might promote interactions with CheA or CheW, we constructed and characterized mutant receptors with amino acid replacements at the two nearly invariant hairpin charged residues of Tsr: R388, the most tip-proximal trimer contact residue, and E391, the apex residue of the hairpin turn. Mutant receptors were subjected to in vivo tests for the assembly and function of trimers, ternary complexes, and clusters. All R388 replacements impaired or destroyed Tsr function, apparently through changes in trimer stability or geometry. Large-residue replacements locked R388 mutant ternary complexes in the kinase-off (F, H) or kinase-on (W, Y) signaling state, suggesting that R388 contributes to signaling-related conformational changes in the trimer. In contrast, most E391 mutants retained function and all formed ternary signaling complexes efficiently. Hydrophobic replacements of any size (G, A, P, V, I, L, F, W) caused a novel phenotype in which the mutant receptors produced rapid switching between kinase-on and -off states, indicating that hairpin tip flexibility plays an important role in signal state transitions. These findings demonstrate that the receptor determinants for CheA and CheW binding probably lie outside the hairpin tip of the receptor signaling domain.

Selective tumor cell targeting using low-affinity, multivalent interactions.

This report highlights the advantages of low-affinity, multivalent interactions to recognize one cell type over another. Our goal was to devise a strategy to mediate selective killing of tumor cells, which are often distinguished from normal cells by their higher levels of particular cell surface receptors. To test whether multivalent interactions could lead to highly specific cell targeting, we used a chemically synthesized small-molecule ligand composed of two distinct motifs: (1) an Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) peptidomimetic that binds tightly (Kd approximately 10(-9)M) to alphavbeta3 integrins and (2) the galactosyl-alpha(1-3)galactose (alpha-Gal epitope), which is recognized by human anti-alpha-galactosyl antibodies (anti-Gal). Importantly, anti-Gal binding requires a multivalent presentation of carbohydrate residues; anti-Gal antibodies interact weakly with the monovalent oligosaccharide (Kd approximately 10(-5)M) but bind tightly (Kd approximately 10(-11) M) to multivalent displays of alpha-Gal epitopes. Such a display is generated when the bifunctional conjugate decorates a cell possessing a high level of alphavbeta3 integrin; the resulting cell surface, which presents many alpha-Gal epitopes, can recruit anti-Gal, thereby triggering complement-mediated lysis. Only those cells with high levels of the integrin receptor are killed. In contrast, doxorubicin tethered to the RGD-based ligand affords indiscriminate cell death. These results highlight the advantages of exploiting the type of the multivalent recognition processes used by physiological systems to discriminate between cells. The selectivity of this strategy is superior to traditional, abiotic, high-affinity targeting methods. Our results have implications for the treatment of cancer and other diseases characterized by the presence of deleterious cells.

Bifunctional ligands that target cells displaying the alpha v beta3 integrin.

Strategies to eliminate tumor cells have long been sought. We envisioned that a small molecule could be used to decorate the offending cells with immunogenic carbohydrates and evoke an immune response. To this end, we describe the synthesis of bifunctional ligands possessing two functional motifs: one binds a cell-surface protein and the other binds a naturally occurring human antibody. Our conjugates combine an RGD-based peptidomimetic, to target cells displaying the alpha v beta3 integrin, with the carbohydrate antigen galactosyl-alpha(1-3)galactose [Galalpha(1-3)Gal or alpha-Gal]. To generate such bifunctional ligands, we designed and synthesized RGD mimetics 1 b and 2 c, which possess a free amino group for modification. These compounds were used to generate bifunctional derivatives 1 c and 2 d, with dimethyl squarate serving as the linchpin; thus, our synthetic approach is modular. To evaluate the binding of our peptidomimetics to the target alpha v beta3-displaying cells, we implemented a cell-adhesion assay. Results from this assay indicate that the designed, small-molecule ligands inhibit alpha v beta3-dependent cell adhesion. Additionally, our most effective bifunctional ligand exhibits a high degree of selectivity (4000-fold) for alpha v beta3 over the related alpha v beta5 integrin, a result that augurs its utility in specific cell targeting. Finally, we demonstrate that the bifunctional ligands can bind to alpha v beta3-positive cells and recruit human anti-Gal antibodies. These results indicate that both the integrin-binding and the anti-Gal-binding moieties can act simultaneously. Bifunctional conjugates of this type can facilitate the development of new methods for targeting cancer cells by exploiting endogenous antibodies. We anticipate that our modifiable alpha v beta3-binding ligands will be valuable in a variety of applications, including drug delivery and tumor targeting.

Synthetic glycoprotein mimics inhibit L-selectin-mediated rolling and promote L-selectin shedding.

L-selectin is a leukocyte cell-surface protein that facilitates the rolling of leukocytes along the endothelium, a process that leads to leukocyte migration to a site of infection. Preventing L-selectin-mediated rolling minimizes leukocyte adhesion and extravasation; therefore, compounds that inhibit rolling may act as anti-inflammatory agents. To investigate the potential role of multivalent ligands as rolling inhibitors, compounds termed neoglycopolymers were synthesized that possess key structural features of physiological L-selectin ligands. Sulfated neoglycopolymers substituted with sialyl Lewis x derivatives (3',6-disulfo Lewis x or 6-sulfo sialyl Lewis x) or a sulfatide analog (3,6-disulfo galactose) inhibited L-selectin-mediated rolling of lymphoid cells. Functional analysis of the inhibitory ligands indicates that they also induce proteolytic release of L-selectin. Thus, their inhibitory potency may arise from their ability to induce shedding. Our data indicate that screening for compounds that promote L-selectin release can identify ligands that inhibit rolling.