OPTIMIZATION OF DRIED BLOOD SPOT ASSAYS FOR HEPATITIS B VIRUS SURFACE ANTIBODY QUANTIFICATION.

Dried blood spot (DBS) cards can be used as an alternative sample collection method to plasma, however, there is no optimized elution protocol for DBS cards specifically for hepatitis B surface antibody (anti-HBs) testing. The study aimed to develop a DBS elution protocol for anti-HBs quantification. Our study sought to determine the ideal phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) buffer volume to use by comparing three PBS volumes (300uL, 450uL, and 500uL), and the optimal time to agitate DBS discs on a plate shaker (1hr, 2hrs, 3hrs, and 4hrs) to yield DBS anti-HBs concentrations that are comparable to corresponding plasma anti-HBs concentrations. The optimal DBS storage temperature (25°C, -20°C, and -80°C) was investigated to determine the ideal longterm storage temperature of the cards. Residual samples were used for optimization (2019-2021). A total of 50 DBS-plasma pairs was used throughout the study, with plasma anti-HBs concentrations being used as the golden standard to compare. The analysis of results was carried out by determining the p-values of the Wilcoxon sign rank. A two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was also performed to determine the impact of PBS elution volumes, elution time, and storage temperature on the anti-HBs concentration of DBS samples on STATA Version 15.0. No statistically significant difference between the DBS-plasma anti-HBs pairs was observed when using 450 or 500uL of PBS buffer and when samples were agitated for 3 hours (p=0.594, p=0.499 respectively). The optimal storage temperature for DBS cards was 25°C because the results showed no statistically significant difference between DBS-plasma anti-HBs titers (p=0.594). The two-way ANOVA analysis showed that elution volumes and time had no statistically significant impact on the DBS anti-HBs concentrations, p=0.948 and p=0.381 respectively. Storage temperature had a statistically significant impact on the DBS anti-HBs concentrations, p=0.002. The optimized DBS elution protocol for anti-HBs quantification will help monitor vaccine efficacy in infants due to the low sample volumes required compared to plasma and also can be used for anti-HBs testing in resource-limited areas around the country.

Persistence and risk factors of occult hepatitis B virus infections among antiretroviral therapy-naïve people living with HIV in Botswana.

Aim: This study aimed to determine the kinetics of occult hepatitis B virus infections (OBI) among people with HIV (PWH). Methods: The study used archived plasma samples from longitudinal HIV natural history studies. We identified new OBI cases and assessed risk factors for OBI using Cox proportional hazards regression analysis. Results: At baseline, 8 of 382 [(2.1%) (95% CI: 1.06-4.1)] samples tested positive for hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg+). Of the 374 HBsAg-negative samples, 76 had sufficient sample volume for HBV DNA screening. OBI positivity (OBI+) at baseline was reported in 11 of 76 [14.7 95% CI (8.3-24.1)] HBsAg-negative (HBsAg-) participants. Baseline HBsAg-negative samples with sufficient follow-up samples (n = 90) were used for analysis of newly identified OBI cases. Participants contributed 129.74 person-years to the study and were followed for a median of 1.02 years (IQR: 1.00-2.00). Cumulatively, there were 34 newly identified OBI cases from the 90 participants, at the rate of 26.2/100 person-years (95% CI: 18.7-36.7). Newly identified OBI cases were more common among men than women (61.1% vs. 31.9%) and among participants with CD4+ T-cell counts ≤450 cells/mL (p-value = 0.02). Most of the newly identified OBI cases [55.9% (19/34)] were possible reactivations as they were previously HBV core antibody positive. Conclusion: There was a high rate of newly identified OBI among young PWH in Botswana, especially in men and in participants with lower CD4+ T-cell counts. OBI screening in PWH should be considered because of the risk of transmission, possible reactivation, and risk factors for the development of chronic liver disease, including hepatocellular carcinoma.

Cytomegalovirus Immunoglobulin G Levels and Subclinical Arterial Disease among People Living with HIV in Botswana: A Cross-Sectional Study.

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) has been linked with increased cardiovascular risk and monocyte activation in people living with HIV (PLWH). This cross-sectional study aimed to compare CMV immunoglobulin G (IgG) levels between combined antiretroviral therapy (cART)-treated PLWH versus ART-naïve PLWH and those without HIV, and to investigate their associations with biomarkers of endothelial injury and carotid atherosclerosis, in Gaborone, Botswana. All participants were between 30 and 50 years old. Carotid intimal media thickness (cIMT) and biomarkers of endothelial injury and monocyte activation were also assessed. The association between quantitative CMV IgG and cardiovascular disease risk was assessed in multivariate logistic regression analysis. The results showed that the mean CMV IgG level among ART-naïve participants was significantly higher than both the cART group and controls. However, CMV IgG levels did not differ significantly between the controls and cART groups. Among PLWH, CMV IgG levels were associated with ICAM-1 levels and cIMT. Increases in CMV IgG among ART-naïve participants were significantly associated with increases in log VCAM-1. In conclusion, CMV IgG levels are elevated among PLWH in sub-Saharan Africa, and higher levels are associated with biomarkers of endothelial injury and cIMT. Future research should investigate the long-term impact of elevated CMV IgG among PLWH.

Low-Level Viremia among Adults Living with HIV on Dolutegravir-Based First-Line Antiretroviral Therapy Is a Predictor of Virological Failure in Botswana.

We evaluated subsequent virologic outcomes in individuals experiencing low-level virem ia (LLV) on dolutegravir (DTG)-based first-line antiretroviral therapy (ART) in Botswana. We used a national dataset from 50,742 adults who initiated on DTG-based first-line ART from June 2016-December 2022. Individuals with at least two viral load (VL) measurements post three months on DTG-based first-line ART were evaluated for first and subsequent episodes of LLV (VL:51-999 copies/mL). LLV was sub-categorized as low-LLV (51-200 copies/mL), medium-LLV (201-400 copies/mL) and high-LLV (401-999 copies/mL). The study outcome was virologic failure (VF) (VL ≥ 1000 copies/mL): virologic non-suppression defined as single-VF and confirmed-VF defined as two-consecutive VF measurements after an initial VL < 1000 copies/mL. Cox regression analysis identified predictive factors of subsequent VF. The prevalence of LLV was only statistically different at timepoints >6-12 (2.8%) and >12-24 (3.9%) (p-value < 0.01). LLV was strongly associated with both virologic non-suppression (adjusted hazards ratio [aHR] = 2.6; 95% CI: 2.2-3.3, p-value ≤ 0.001) and confirmed VF (aHR = 2.5; 95% CI: 2.4-2.7, p-value ≤ 0.001) compared to initially virally suppressed PLWH. High-LLV (HR = 3.3; 95% CI: 2.9-3.6) and persistent-LLV (HR = 6.6; 95% CI: 4.9-8.9) were associated with an increased hazard for virologic non-suppression than low-LLV and a single-LLV episode, respectively. In a national cohort of PLWH on DTG-based first-line ART, LLV > 400 copies/mL and persistent-LLV had a stronger association with VF. Frequent VL testing and adherence support are warranted for individuals with VL > 50 copies/mL.

Experiences, Lessons, and Challenges With Adapting REDCap for COVID-19 Laboratory Data Management in a Resource-Limited Country: Descriptive Study.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic brought challenges requiring timely health data sharing to inform accurate decision-making at national levels. In Botswana, we adapted and integrated the Research Electronic Data Capture (REDCap) and the District Health Information System version 2 (DHIS2) platforms to support timely collection and reporting of COVID-19 cases. We focused on establishing an effective COVID-19 data flow at the national public health laboratory, being guided by the needs of health care professionals at the National Health Laboratory (NHL). This integration contributed to automated centralized reporting of COVID-19 results at the Ministry of Health (MOH). OBJECTIVE: This paper reports the experiences, challenges, and lessons learned while designing, adapting, and implementing the REDCap and DHIS2 platforms to support COVID-19 data management at the NHL in Botswana. METHODS: A participatory design approach was adopted to guide the design, customization, and implementation of the REDCap platform in support of COVID-19 data management at the NHL. Study participants included 29 NHL and 4 MOH personnel, and the study was conducted from March 2, 2020, to June 30, 2020. Participants' requirements for an ideal COVID-19 data management system were established. NVivo 11 software supported thematic analysis of the challenges and resolutions identified during this study. These were categorized according to the 4 themes of infrastructure, capacity development, platform constraints, and interoperability. RESULTS: Overall, REDCap supported the majority of perceived technical and nontechnical requirements for an ideal COVID-19 data management system at the NHL. Although some implementation challenges were identified, each had mitigation strategies such as procurement of mobile Internet routers, engagement of senior management to resolve conflicting policies, continuous REDCap training, and the development of a third-party web application to enhance REDCap's capabilities. Lessons learned informed next steps and further refinement of the REDCap platform. CONCLUSIONS: Implementation of REDCap at the NHL to streamline COVID-19 data collection and integration with the DHIS2 platform was feasible despite the urgency of implementation during the pandemic. By implementing the REDCap platform at the NHL, we demonstrated the possibility of achieving a centralized reporting system of COVID-19 cases, hence enabling timely and informed decision-making at a national level. Challenges faced presented lessons learned to inform sustainable implementation of digital health innovations in Botswana and similar resource-limited countries.

High Prevalence of Hepatitis B Virus Drug Resistance Mutations to Lamivudine among People with HIV/HBV Coinfection in Rural and Peri-Urban Communities in Botswana.

(1) Background: We aimed to determine the prevalence of hepatitis B virus (HBV) resistance-associated mutations (RAMs) in people with HBV and human immunodeficiency virus (HBV/HIV) in Botswana. (2) Methods: We sequenced HBV deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) from participants with HBV/HIV from the Botswana Combination Prevention Project study (2013-2018) using the Oxford Nanopore GridION platform. Consensus sequences were analyzed for genotypic and mutational profiles. (3) Results: Overall, 98 HBV sequences had evaluable reverse transcriptase region coverage. The median participant age was 43 years (IQR: 37, 49) and 66/98 (67.4%) were female. Most participants, i.e., 86/98 (87.8%) had suppressed HIV viral load (VL). HBV RAMs were identified in 61/98 (62.2%) participants. Most RAMs were in positions 204 (60.3%), 180 (50.5%), and 173 (33.3%), mostly associated with lamivudine resistance. The triple mutations rtM204V/L180M/V173L were the most predominant (17/61 [27.9%]). Most participants (96.7%) with RAMs were on antiretroviral therapy for a median duration of 7.5 years (IQR: 4.8, 10.5). Approximately 27.9% (17/61) of participants with RAMs had undetectable HBV VL, 50.8% (31/61) had VL < 2000 IU/mL, and 13/61 (21.3%) had VL ≥ 2000 IU/mL. (4) Conclusions: The high prevalence of lamivudine RAMs discourages the use of ART regimens with 3TC as the only HBV-active drug in people with HIV/HBV.

Lower Insulin Sensitivity Through 36 Months of Life With in Utero HIV and Antiretroviral Exposure in Botswana: Results From the Tshilo Dikotla Study.

BACKGROUND: There are little data on changes in insulin sensitivity during the first few years of life following in utero human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and antiretroviral (ARV) exposure. METHODS: The Tshilo Dikotla study enrolled pregnant persons with HIV (PWH) (receiving tenofovir/emtricitabine or lamivudine plus dolutegravir or efavirenz) and pregnant individuals without HIV, as well as their liveborn children. Newborns were randomized to receive either zidovudine (AZT) or nevirapine (NVP) postnatal prophylaxis. Homeostasis Model Assessment for Insulin Resistance (HOMA-IR) was assessed at birth and 1, 18, 24, and 36 months of life. We fit linear mixed-effects models to evaluate the association between in utero HIV/ARV exposure and average HOMA-IR from birth through 36 months of life, adjusting for confounders. RESULTS: A total of 419 children were included (287 with in utero HIV/ARV exposure and uninfected [CHEU] and 132 without in utero HIV/ARV exposure [CHUU]). CHEU were born to older women (29.6 vs 25.3 years of age) with higher gravidity (3 vs 1). HOMA-IR was persistently higher in CHEU versus CHUU in adjusted analyses (mean difference of 0.07 in log10 HOMA-IR, P  = .02) from birth through 36 months of life. Among CHEU, no differences in HOMA-IR were observed from birth through 36 months by in utero ARV exposure status or between AZT and NVP infant prophylaxis arms. CONCLUSIONS: In utero HIV/ARV exposure was associated with lower insulin sensitivity throughout the first 36 months of life, indicating persistent early life metabolic disturbances which may raise concern for poorer metabolic health later in life.

High prevalence of pre-treatment and acquired HIV-1 drug resistance mutations among non-citizens living with HIV in Botswana.

Background: Approximately 30,000 non-citizens are living with HIV in Botswana, all of whom as of 2020 are eligible to receive free antiretroviral treatment (ART) within the country. We assessed the prevalence of HIV-1 mutational profiles [pre-treatment drug resistance (PDR) and acquired drug resistance (ADR)] among treatment-experienced (TE) and treatment-naïve (TN) non-citizens living with HIV in Botswana. Methods: A total of 152 non-citizens living with HIV were enrolled from a migrant HIV clinic at Independence Surgery, a private practice in Botswana from 2019-2021. Viral RNA isolated from plasma samples were genotyped for HIV drug resistance (HIVDR) using Sanger sequencing. Major known HIV drug resistance mutations (DRMs) in the pol region were determined using the Stanford HIV Drug Resistance Database. The proportions of HIV DRMs amongst TE and TN non-citizens were estimated with 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) and compared between the two groups. Results: A total of 60/152 (39.5%) participants had a detectable viral load (VL) >40 copies/mL and these were included in the subsequent analyses. The median age at enrollment was 43 years (Q1, Q3: 38-48). Among individuals with VL > 40 copies/mL, 60% (36/60) were treatment-experienced with 53% (19/36) of them on Atripla. Genotyping had a 62% (37/60) success rate - 24 were TE, and 13 were TN. A total of 29 participants (78.4, 95% CI: 0.12-0.35) had major HIV DRMs, including at least one non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI) associated DRM. In TE individuals, ADR to any antiretroviral drug was 83.3% (20/24), while for PDR was 69.2% (9/13). The most frequent DRMs were nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) M184V (62.1%, 18/29), NNRTIs V106M (41.4%, 12/29), and K103N (34.4%, 10/29). No integrase strand transfer inhibitor-associated DRMs were reported. Conclusion: We report high rates of PDR and ADR in ART-experienced and ART-naïve non-citizens, respectively, in Botswana. Given the uncertainty of time of HIV acquisition and treatment adherence levels in this population, routine HIV-1C VL monitoring coupled with HIVDR genotyping is crucial for long-term ART success.

Rapid dynamic changes of FL.2 variant: A case report of COVID-19 breakthrough infection.

We investigated intra-host genetic evolution using two SARS-CoV-2 isolates from a fully vaccinated (primary schedule x2 doses of AstraZeneca plus a booster of Pfizer), >70-year-old woman with a history of lymphoma and hypertension who presented a SARS-CoV-2 infection for 3 weeks prior to death due to COVID-19. Two full genome sequences were determined from samples taken 13 days apart with both belonging to Pango lineage FL.2: the first detection of this Omicron sub-variant in Botswana. FL.2 is a sub-lineage of XBB.1.9.1. The repertoire of mutations and minority variants in the Spike protein differed between the two time points. Notably, we also observed deletions within the ORF1a and Membrane proteins; both regions are associated with high T-cell epitope density. The internal milieu of immune-suppressed individuals may accelerate SARS-CoV-2 evolution; hence, close monitoring is warranted.

Hepatitis B surface antigen loss in individuals with chronic hepatitis B virus and HIV-1 infections in Botswana.

OBJECTIVES: We sought to determine hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) loss and its predictors among people with chronic hepatitis B (CHB) infections and HIV (PWH) in Botswana. METHODS: Archived plasma samples from a cohort of PWH in Botswana (2013-2018) with 3 yearly time-points were used. Samples were screened for HBsAg, immunoglobulin M HBV core antibodies (anti-HBc IgM) and HBV e-antigen (HBeAg) at all time points. HBV deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) quantification was done at baseline. The Wilcoxon rank-sum was used to compare continuous variables while the chi-squared test and Fishers exact test were used for categorical data wherever appropriate. Logistic regression was used to assess predictors of seroclearance. RESULTS: Of 141 participants with HBsAg-positive serology (HBsAg+) at baseline, 92.2% (131/141) [95% confidence interval (CI) 87.4-96.1] were persistently HBsAg+ at year 1. We report a HBsAg loss of 7.1% (10/141) (95% CI 3.9-12.6) among participants with negative HBeAg and negative IgM serologies. HBsAg loss was 6.3% (7/111) among antiretroviral therapy (ART)-experienced participants and 10.7% (3/28) (95% CI 0.4-5.0) in ART-naive participants. Most participants who had positive anti-HBc IgM serology and did not lose HBsAg were on either lamivudine (3TC)-based therapy or non-tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF)-based therapy, except for one participant. The participants also had varying HBeAg status. HBsAg loss was independent of HIV viral load, CD4 + cell count, age, and sex. CONCLUSION: We report a HBsAg loss of 6.3% over a 3-year period among ART-experienced CHB participants. Future studies that focus on HBsAg loss in mono-infected patients and the possible correlation between HBeAg status and HBsAg loss are warranted.

Triage of HPV positivity in a high HIV prevalence setting: A prospective cohort study comparing visual triage methods and HPV genotype restriction in Botswana.

OBJECTIVE: Guidelines for effective triage following positive primary high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) screening in low- and middle-income countries with high human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-prevalence have not previously been established. In the present study, we evaluated the performance of three triage methods for positive HPV results in women living with HIV (WLHIV) and without HIV in Botswana. METHODS: We conducted baseline enrollment of a prospective cohort study from February 2021 to August 2022 in South-East District, Botswana. Non-pregnant women aged 25 or older with an intact cervix and no prior diagnosis of cervical cancer were systematically consented for enrollment, with enrichment of the cohort for WLHIV. Those who consented completed a questionnaire and then collected vaginal self-samples for HPV testing. Primary HPV testing for 15 individual genotypes was conducted using Atila AmpFire® HPV assay. Those with positive HPV results returned for a triage visit where all underwent visual inspection with acetic acid (VIA), colposcopy, and biopsy. Triage strategies with VIA, colposcopy and 8-type HPV genotype restriction (16/18/31/33/35/45/52/58), separately and in combination, were compared using histopathology as the gold standard in diagnosing cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) 2 or worse (CIN2+). RESULTS: Among 2969 women enrolled, 1480 (50%) tested HPV positive. The cohort included 1478 (50%) WLHIV; 99% were virologically suppressed after a mean of 8 years on antiretroviral therapy. In total, 1269 (86%) women had histopathology data for analysis. Among WLHIV who tested positive for HPV, 131 (19%) of 688 had CIN2+ compared with 71 (12%) of 581 in women without HIV. Screening by 8-type HPV genotype restriction was more sensitive as triage to detect CIN2+ in WLHIV 87.79% (95% CI: 80.92-92.85) and women without HIV 85.92% (95% CI: 75.62-93.03) when compared with VIA (WLHIV 62.31% [95% CI: 53.39-70.65], women without HIV 44.29% [95% CI: 32.41-56.66]) and colposcopy (WLHIV 70.77% [95% CI: 62.15-78.41], women without HIV 45.71% [95% CI: 33.74-58.06]). However, 8-type HPV genotype restriction had low specificity in WLHIV of 30.88% (95% CI: 27.06-34.90) and women without HIV 37.06% (95% CI: 32.85-41.41). These results were similar when CIN3+ was used as the outcome. When combining 8-type HPV genotype restriction with VIA as the triage strategy, there was improved specificity to detect CIN2+ in WLHIV of 81.65% (95% CI: 78.18-84.79) but dramatically reduced sensitivity of 56.15% (95% CI: 47.18-64.84). CONCLUSIONS: Eight-type HPV genotype restriction is a promising component of effective triage for HPV positivity. However, novel triage strategies in LMICs with high HIV prevalence may be needed to avoid the trade-off between sensitivity and specificity with currently available options. CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION: This study is registered on Clinicaltrials.gov no. NCT04242823, https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04242823.

Safety of AZD1222 COVID-19 vaccine and low Incidence of SARS-CoV-2 infection in Botswana following ChAdOx1(AZD1222) vaccination: A single-arm open-label interventional study - final study results.

Objectives: We report the final analysis of the single-arm open-label study evaluating the safety and COVID-19 incidence after AZD1222 vaccination in Botswana conducted between September 2021 and August 2022. Methods: The study included three groups of adults (>18 years), homologous AZD1222 primary series and booster (AZ2), heterologous primary series with one dose AZD1222, and AZD1222 booster (HPS), and primary series other than AZD1222 and AZD1222 booster (OPS). We compared the incidence of AEs in participants with and without prior COVID-19 infection using an exact test for rate ratios. Results: Among 10,894 participants, 9192 (84.4%) were enrolled at first vaccine dose, 521 (4.8%) at second vaccine, and 1181 (10.8%) at the booster vaccine. Of 10,855 included in the full analysis set, 1700 received one dose of AZD1222; 5377 received two doses; 98 received a heterologous series including one AZD1222 and a booster; 30 in the HPS group; 1058 in the OPS group; and 2592 in the AZ2 group. No laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 hospitalizations or deaths were reported. The incidence of laboratory-confirmed symptomatic COVID infection for the AZ2 group was 6.22 (95% confidence interval: 2.51-12.78) per 1000 participant-years (1000-PY) and 3.5 (95% confidence interval: 0.42-12.57) per 1000-PY for AZ2+booster group. Most adverse events were mild, with higher incidence in participants with prior COVID-19 infection. Individuals with prior COVID-19 exposure exhibited higher binding antibody responses. No differences in outcomes were observed by HIV status. Conclusion: AZD1222 is safe, effective, and immunogenic for people living with and without HIV.

Correction: Youth and healthcare workers' perspectives on the feasibility and acceptability of self-testing for HIV, Hepatitis and Syphilis among young people: Qualitative findings from a pilot study in Gaborone, Botswana.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0288971.].

Predicted resistance to broadly neutralizing antibodies (bnAbs) and associated HIV-1 envelope characteristics among seroconverting adults in Botswana.

We used HIV-1C sequences to predict (in silico) resistance to 33 known broadly neutralizing antibodies (bnAbs) and evaluate the different HIV-1 Env characteristics that may affect virus neutralization. We analyzed proviral sequences from adults with documented HIV-1 seroconversion (N = 140) in Botswana (2013-2018). HIV-1 env sequences were used to predict bnAb resistance using bNAb-ReP, to determine the number of potential N-linked glycosylation sites (PNGS) and evaluate Env variable region characteristics (VC). We also assessed the presence of signature mutations that may affect bnAb sensitivity in vitro. We observe varied results for predicted bnAb resistance among our cohort. 3BNC117 showed high predicted resistance (72%) compared to intermediate levels of resistance to VRC01 (57%). We predict low resistance to PGDM100 and 10-1074 and no resistance to 4E10. No difference was observed in the frequency of PNGS by bNAb susceptibility patterns except for higher number of PNGs in V3 bnAb resistant strains. Associations of VC were observed for V1, V4 and V5 loop length and net charge. We also observed few mutations that have been reported to confer bnAb resistance in vitro. Our results support use of sequence data and machine learning tools to predict the best bnAbs to use within populations.

Fostemsavir resistance-associated polymorphisms in HIV-1 subtype C in a large cohort of treatment-naïve and treatment-experienced individuals in Botswana.

IMPORTANCE: Fostemsavir (FTR) is a newly licensed antiretroviral drug that has been shown to have activity against HIV-1. The mechanism of action of FTR is different from all currently available antiretrovirals (ARVs), and as such, it offers hope for HIV-1 suppression in those people with HIV (PWH) who harbor HIV-1 variants with drug resistance mutations to currently used ARVs. Using 6,030 HIV-1 sequences covering the HIV-1 envelope from PWH in Botswana who are antiretroviral therapy (ART) naïve as well as those who are failing ART, we explored the sequences for FTR resistance-associated polymorphisms. We found the prevalence of FTR polymorphisms to be similar in both ART-naïve and ART-experienced individuals with VF in this setting, with no prior FTR exposure. Further studies on the phenotypic impact of these polymorphisms are warranted to guide how to monitor for FTR resistance.

High prevalence of hepatitis delta virus among people with hepatitis B virus and HIV coinfection in Botswana.

BACKGROUND: Approximately 15-20 million people worldwide are infected with hepatitis delta virus (HDV), which is approximately 5 % of people with chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV). Sub-Saharan Africa has high HDV prevalence, leading to worse clinical outcomes among people who are HIV/HBV/HDV tri-infected. There are limited data on HDV prevalence among people with HIV (PWH) who are HBV-infected and uninfected in Botswana. We, therefore, determined HDV prevalence among PWH in Botswana. METHODS: This was a retrospective cross-sectional study utilizing archived plasma samples from PWH with results for HBV markers such as hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg), hepatitis B core antibody (anti-HBc), immunoglobulin M antibody to hepatitis B core antigen (IgM anti-HBc) and hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg). Samples were categorized according to their HBsAg status and screened for anti-HDV antibodies. Total nucleic acid was extracted from samples with a single positive anti-HDV result, and HDV ribonucleic acid (RNA) load was quantified using the Altona Diagnostic RealStar® HDV RT-PCR kit. Statistical analysis was performed using STATA version 14.0 where p-values < 0.05 were considered statistically significant. RESULTS: The study cohort (n = 478) included both HBsAg positive (44 %) and negative (56 %) participants, with a median age of 42 [IQR; 41-43]. Anti-HDV prevalence of (15/211) [7.1 %, 95 % CI: 4.4 - 11.4] was recorded among HBsAg positive participants, all of whom were IgM anti-HBc negative, while 5/6 participants were HBeAg negative. HDV RNA load was detected in 11/12 (92 %) anti-HDV-positive participants. No HDV prevalence was recorded among participants who were HBsAg negative, therefore, the overall HDV prevalence was (15/478) [3.1 %, 95 % CI: 1.9 - 5.1]. HIV viral load suppression was statistically insignificant, irrespective of HDV status. CONCLUSIONS: We report high HDV prevalence among HBsAg-positive PWH in Botswana. Most HDV-positive participants had active HDV infection, therefore, we recommend HDV screening in this cohort to guide their clinical care.

Predicted broadly neutralizing antibody (bnAb) resistance and associated envelope characteristics of adults with HIV-1 seroconversion in Botswana.

We used HIV-1C sequences to predict (in silico) resistance to 33 known broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs) and evaluate the different HIV-1 env characteristics that may affect virus neutralization. We analyzed proviral sequences from adults with documented HIV-1 seroconversion (N=140) in Botswana (2013-2018). HIV-1 env sequences were used to predict bnAb resistance using bNAb-ReP, to determine the number of potential N-linked glycosylation sites (PNGS) and evaluate env variable region characteristics (VC). We also assessed the presence of signature mutations that may affect bnAb sensitivity in vitro. We observe varied results for predicted bnAb resistance among our cohort. 3BNC117 showed high predicted resistance (72%) compared to intermediate levels of resistance to VRC01 (57%). We predict low resistance to PGDM100 and 10-1074 and no resistance to 4E10. No difference was observed in the frequency of PNGS by bNAb susceptibility patterns except for higher number of PNGs in V3 bnAb resistant strains. Associations of VC were observed for V1, V4 and V5 loop length and net charge. We also observed few mutations that have been reported to confer bnAb resistance in vitro. Our results support use of sequence data and machine learning tools to predict the best bnAbs to use within populations.

Archived rilpivirine-associated resistance mutations among ART-naive and virologically suppressed people living with HIV-1 subtype C in Botswana: implications for cabotegravir/rilpivirine use.

OBJECTIVES: Pre-existing rilpivirine resistance-associated mutations (RVP-RAMs) have been found to predict HIV-1 virological failure in those switching to long-acting injectable cabotegravir/rilpivirine. We here evaluated the prevalence of archived RPV-RAMs in a cohort of people living with HIV (PWH). METHODS: We analysed near full-length HIV-1 pol sequences from proviral DNA for the presence of RPV-RAMs, which were defined according to the 2022 IAS-USA drug resistance mutation list and Stanford HIV drug resistance database. RESULTS: RPV-RAMs were identified in 757/5805 sequences, giving a prevalence of 13.0% (95% CI 12%-13.9%). Amongst the ART-naive group, 137/1281 (10.7%, 95% CI 9.1%-12.5%) had at least one RPV-RAM. Of the 4524 PWH with viral suppression on ART (VL <400 copies/mL), 620 (13.7%, 95% CI 12.7%-14.7%) had at least one RPV-RAM. E138A was the most prevalent RPV-RAM in the ART-naive group (7.9%) and the ART-suppressed group (9.3%). The rest of the mutations observed (L100I, K101E, E138G, E138K, E138Q, Y181C, H221Y, M230L, A98G, V179D, G190A, G190E and M230I) were below a prevalence of 1%. CONCLUSIONS: RPV-RAMs were present in 10.7% of ART-naive and 13.7% of ART-suppressed PWH in Botswana. The most common RPV-RAM in both groups was E138A. Since individuals with the E138A mutation may be more likely to fail cabotegravir/rilpivirine, monitoring RPV-RAMs will be crucial for effective cabotegravir/rilpivirine implementation in this setting.

Broadly neutralizing antibody treatment maintained HIV suppression in children with favorable reservoir characteristics in Botswana.

Broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs) may provide an alternative to standard antiretroviral treatment (ART) for controlling HIV-1 replication and may have immunotherapeutic effects against HIV-1 reservoirs. We conducted a prospective clinical trial with two HIV-1 bNAbs (VRC01LS and 10-1074) in children (n = 25) who had previously initiated small-molecule ART treatment before 7 days of age and who continued treatment for at least 96 weeks. Both bNAbs were dosed intravenously every 4 weeks, overlapping with ART for at least 8 weeks and then continued for up to 24 weeks or until detectable viremia of HIV-1 RNA rose above 400 copies per milliliter in the absence of ART. Eleven (44%) children maintained HIV-1 RNA below 400 copies per milliliter through 24 weeks of bNAb-only treatment; 14 (56%) had detectable viremia above 400 copies per milliliter at a median of 4 weeks. Archived HIV-1 provirus susceptible to 10-1074, lower birth HIV-1 DNA reservoir in peripheral blood mononuclear cells, sustained viral suppression throughout early life, and combined negative qualitative HIV-1 DNA polymerase chain reaction and negative HIV-1 serology at entry were associated with maintaining suppression on bNAbs alone. This proof-of-concept study suggests that bNAbs may represent a promising treatment modality for infants and children living with HIV-1. Future studies using newer bNAb combinations with greater breadth and potency are warranted.

Atypical Hepatitis B Virus Serology Profile-Hepatitis B Surface Antigen-Positive/Hepatitis B Core Antibody-Negative-In Hepatitis B Virus/HIV Coinfected Individuals in Botswana.

(1) Background: Hepatitis B core antibodies (anti-HBc) are a marker of hepatitis B virus (HBV) exposure; hence, a normal HBV serology profile is characterized by HBV surface antigen (HBsAg) and anti-HBc positivity. However, atypical HBV serologies occur, and we aimed to determine the prevalence of an atypical profile (HBsAg+/anti-HBc-) in a cohort of people with HIV-1 (PWH) in Botswana. (2) Methods: Plasma samples from an HIV-1 cohort in Botswana (2013-2018) were used. The samples were screened for HBsAg and anti-HBc. Next-generation sequencing was performed using the GridION platform. The Wilcoxon rank-sum test and Chi-squared tests were used for the comparison of continuous and categorical variables, respectively. (3) Results: HBsAg+/anti-HBc- prevalence was 13.7% (95% CI 10.1-18.4) (36/263). HBsAg+/anti-HBc- participants were significantly younger (p < 0.001), female (p = 0.02) and ART-naïve (p = 0.04) and had a detectable HIV viral load (p = 0.02). There was no statistically significant difference in the number of mutations observed in participants with HBsAg+/anti-HBc- vs. those with HBsAg+/anti-HBc+ serology. (4) Conclusions: We report a high HBsAg+/anti-HBc- atypical serology profile prevalence among PWH in Botswana. We caution against HBV-testing algorithms that consider only anti-HBc+ samples for HBsAg testing, as they are likely to underestimate HBV prevalence. Studies to elucidate the mechanisms and implications of this profile are warranted.