Prevalence, predictors and challenges of gestational diabetes mellitus screening among pregnant women in northern Tanzania.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the prevalence and predictors of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) as well as acceptability of returning for glucose tolerance testing among pregnant women in Moshi municipality, northern Tanzania. METHODS: Cross-sectional study from October 2015 to April 2016 among women with gestation age of 24-28 weeks of pregnancy attending at Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre (KCMC) referral hospital, Majengo and Pasua Health Centres. Women were interviewed and requested to return the next day (window within a month, depending on gestational age) for fasting plasma glucose (FPG) testing, followed immediately by a 75 g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). GDM was diagnosed using the 2013 WHO criteria. Logistic regression was conducted to reveal independent predictors for GDM. RESULTS: Of 433 interviewed women, 100 (23%) did not return for FPG and OGTT testing. The prevalence of GDM among the 333 screened women was 19.5%, and 3% had diabetes in pregnancy (DIP). GDM was significantly associated with age ≥35 years (adjusted OR 6.75), pre-pregnancy obesity (AOR 2.22) and history of abortion (AOR 2.36). CONCLUSION: Prevalence of GDM is high in Moshi. We recommend introduction of routine screening for hyperglycaemia during pregnancy along with strategies for follow-up to prevent long-term effects of GDM and DIP in women and their children.

The effectiveness of a syndromic approach in managing vaginal infections among pregnant women in northern Tanzania.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effectiveness of the syndromic approach in management of vaginal infections among pregnant women in Moshi urban, Tanzania. METHODS: Between June 2002 and March 2004, 2654 pregnant women in their 3rd trimester were recruited from two community primary health care clinics. They were interviewed using a structured questionnaire, examined and genital samples collected. Vaginal secretions were evaluated for bacterial vaginosis (BV) by Amsel's criteria, for trichomoniasis (TV) and candidiasis (CA) by wet mount microscopy. Sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive values were used to assess the effectiveness of syndromic management for vaginal infections. RESULTS: The prevalence of TV, BV and CA were 5.0%, 20.9% and 11.4% respectively. Nearly 70% of the vaginal infections with trichomoniasis and/or bacterial vaginosis were asymptomatic. Self reported vaginal discharge or the presence of vaginal discharge during examination were poor predictors of vaginal infections with a sensitivity of 29%-54% and 26%-50% respectively in detecting TV and BV. Using them would lead to under-diagnosis of those with these infections and overtreatment of those without the infections. CONCLUSIONS: Diagnosis and treatment of TV and BV among pregnant women remains a challenge in this setting. The current symptom-directed treatment would miss a substantial proportion of TV and/or BV infections because of the poor performance of the test, and because most infections were asymptomatic or unrecognized. The introduction of simple, point of care laboratory screening tests for vaginal infections into routine antenatal care at primary health clinics with laboratory facilities should be considered.

Low male partner participation in antenatal HIV counselling and testing in northern Tanzania: implications for preventive programs.

This study aimed to describe the prevalence and predictors for male partner participation in HIV voluntary counselling and testing (VCT) at two primary healthcare clinics in Moshi urban, Tanzania as well as the effect of partner participation on uptake of HIV perinatal interventions. Pregnant women (n = 2654) in their third trimester, participating in a prevention of mother to child tranmission (PMTCT) program between June 2002 and March 2004 were encouraged to inform and invite their partners for HIV-VCT. Trained nurses conducted pre-test counselling, interviews, clinical examinations and blood sampling from the participating women and their partners. Test results were presented and post-test counselling was conducted individually or in couples, depending on the wishes of the participants. Three-hundred-and-thirty-two male partners (12.5%) came for HIV-VCT. A high proportion (131; 40%) came after the woman had delivered. HIV-seropositive women whose partners attended were three times more likely to use Nevirapine prophylaxis, four times more likely to avoid breastfeeding and six times more likely to adhere to the infant feeding method selected than those whose partners didn't attend. Women were more likely to bring their partner for VCT if they collected their own test results, were living with their partner, had a high monthly income and had expressed at enrolment the intention to share HIV results with their partner. Although PMTCT programs are presumably a good entry point for male involvement in prevention of sexual and perinatal HIV transmission, this traditional clinic-based approach reaches few men. Given the positive influence male participation has on the acceptance of perinatal interventions, a different approach for promoting male participation in VCT is urgently required. Within PMTCT programs, counseling should emphasize the advantages of partner participation to encourage women to inform and convince male partners to come for VCT. Also, promotion of couple VCT outside antenatal settings in male friendly and accessible settings should be given priority.

Decline in HIV prevalence among women of childbearing age in Moshi urban, Tanzania.

The objective of this study was to describe trends over time in HIV prevalence, sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and sexual behaviour among women in Moshi urban, Tanzania. Two cross-sectional studies were conducted in 1999 and in 2002-04 among women attending three primary health-care clinics. They were interviewed and screened for HIV and STIs. There was a significant decrease in HIV prevalence (11.5-6.9%). The decline was greatest among women aged 15-24 years. Syphilis, trichomoniasis, bacterial vaginosis, genital ulcers and reported STI symptoms also decreased significantly over the three-year inter-survey period. The proportion of women reporting casual sex decreased and knowledge of STI symptoms and health-care seeking behaviour improved. Herpes simplex virus type 2, genital warts, age at sexual debut, age at first pregnancy and condom use remained unchanged. In conclusion, decline in curable STIs and casual sex partners may partly explain the observed decline in HIV seroprevalence. Both STIs and sexual behaviour should be monitored in HIV sentinel surveillance. There remains a gap between knowledge of preventive behaviour and actual preventive practices.

Seroprevalence of hepatitis B and C viruses among women of childbearing age in Moshi Urban, Tanzania.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the seroprevalence of hepatitis C and B viruses and their association with HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) among women aged 15-49 years, attending primary health care clinics in Moshi urban, Tanzania. DESIGN: A cross-sectional study. SETTING: Three primary health care clinics in Moshi, Tanzania. SUBJECTS: A total of 382 consenting women attending reproductive and child health clinics between September-December 1999. RESULTS: The seroprevalence of anti-HCV was 1.0%, for HBsAg 4.2% and for HIV 11.5%. HIV infection and other sexually transmitted diseases were not associated with anti-HCV or HBsAg. There was no interrelation between HCV and HBV markers. CONCLUSION: Hepatitis C Virus infection is infrequent among women in urban Tanzania. HCV and HBsAg were not more prevalent in HIV-infected women. Public preventive efforts should thus focus on hepatitis B virus immunisation.

Risk assessment at the primary health care level in Moshi, Tanzania: limits in predicting sexually transmitted infections among women.

OBJECTIVE: To identify risk factors for sexually transmitted infections (STI) and to evaluate the accuracy of using risk assessment for identifying infected women in Moshi, Tanzania. DESIGN: A cross sectional study. SETTING: Three primary health care clinics in Moshi. SUBJECTS: 382 consenting women attending the clinics for routine reproductive health care were interviewed followed by a pelvic examination between September and December 1999. Blood and genital specimens were collected for STI diagnosis. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Prevalent STIs, risk factors and accuracy of using risk factors to identify infected women. RESULTS: Among 382 women, 118 (31%) had at least one STI diagnosed clinically or by a laboratory test; (T. vaginalis 21%, syphilis 4.2%, chlamydia and/or gonococcal cervicitis 3.2%, genital ulcer 4.5% and warts 2%). The risk of CT/GC cervicitis was greater among women aged < 20 years (p = 0.04), with cervical friability (p = 0.01) and with > 10 cervical leucocytes (p < 0.001), while having more than one partner in the past three months (p = 0.008) predicted syphilis infection. Trichomoniasis was associated with the presence of vaginal discharge (p = 0.001) and pH > 4.5 (p < 0.001). However, using these risk factors as a screening tool for various STIs achieved a low sensitivity and a low positive predictive value, hence a low utility for case detection. CONCLUSION: STIs were prevalent in this setting. However, risk factors were not a good tool for identifying infected women. While there is an urgent need to develop low cost microbiological tests for case detection, efforts should be made to maximise the available control strategies, such as proper treatment of symptomatic patients and their partners.

Cervical dyskaryosis among women with and without HIV: prevalence and risk factors.

Women in developing countries often present for medical care with advanced cervical cancer, although this condition is preventable through regular screening and early treatment. This study sought to identify the prevalence and risk factors for cervical dyskaryosis among women in Zimbabwe with and without HIV. In a cross-sectional study, 200 consenting women were screened for cervical dyskaryosis and sexually transmitted infections (STI). The relationship between various risk factors for cervical dyskaryosis was examined. The overall prevalence of cervical dyskaryosis was high (19%), and significantly higher among HIV-infected women at 30% compared with 13% among seronegative women, with a peak at a younger age among seropositive women. Use of intravaginal herbs, practising intravaginal cleansing, being single, a history of three or more lifetime sexual partners and a history of previous STI were associated with cervical dysplasia. The high frequency of cervical abnormality lends weight to the demand for implementation of regular screening programmes and health education.

HIV prevalence in Zimbabwean women: 54-67% knowledge and perceived risk.

This study examined the level of knowledge of sexually transmitted infections (STI) and HIV, knowledge of symptoms and potential sequelae of STI and perceived personal risks of infection among urban women in Zimbabwe. The women consented to being interviewed, examined, tested and treated for curable diagnosed STIs. Prevalence of both STI and HIV was high 11.4% and 54.5% among women aged 15-19 years, 28.5% and 62.4% among those 20-29 years and was highest among the age group >/=30 years 39.0% and 67.0% respectively. Women aged 15-19 years least perceived their risk of infection. Of the women with the highest rates of STI/HIV infection, less than 30% were aware of their vulnerability to such infections. Knowledge of specific STIs, their symptoms and sequelae was generally low. Women who did not know about syphilis, gonorrhoea, chancroid or warts were more likely to perceive themselves at no risk of infection. Condom use was very low (16.5%). There is an urgent need to improve current education programmes to raise awareness of STIs and the dangers of their long-term sequelae along with behavioural skills building interventions that include equipping women with negotiating skills, making female condoms available at affordable prices and motivating condom use.

Reproductive tract infections among women attending primary health care facilities in Moshi, Tanzania.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the prevalence and risk factors for reproductive tract infections (RTIs), the frequency of asymptomatic genital tract infections, the frequency of genitourinary symptoms and signs and to assess their associations with vaginal and cervical infections. DESIGN: A cross sectional study carried out between September and December 1999. SETTING: Three primary health care centres in Moshi, Tanzania. SUBJECTS: A total of 382 consenting women attending Maternal Child Health (MCH) and Family planning clinics (FP). INTERVENTIONS: Women were interviewed and then pelvic examination was performed. Blood and genital specimens were collected for laboratory diagnosis of RTIs. RESULTS: Of the 382 women, 64% had-at least one RTI (33.9% bacterial vaginosis, 27% C. albicans, 21.2% T. vaginalis, 5% C. trachomatis, 4% syphilis and 0.5% N. gonorrhoea) and 26% had at least one STI. Nearly 43% of laboratory diagnosed RTIs were asymptomatic. Although none of the women had reported abnormal urogenital symptoms during routine clinical consultation, 64% revealed such symptoms on direct questioning. Reported genital symptoms and signs were significantly associated with vaginal, but not cervical infection. CONCLUSIONS: Curable RTIs are prevalent among women attending the MCH and FP clinics. Symptomatic infections were frequently not recognised or reported. We recommend introduction of routine RTI screening and treatment service in the MCH and FP clinics. Strategies to improve women's awareness and knowledge of urogenital symptoms should be instituted.

HIV seroprevalence and its associations with the other reproductive tract infections in asymptomatic women in Harare, Zimbabwe.

The objective was to determine the magnitude of HIV as well as the associations between HIV seropositivity with reproductive tract infections (RTIs) among healthy women in Harare, Zimbabwe. In a cross-sectional study, 393 informed consenting women aged 15--49 years, attending 2 primary healthcare clinics, were interviewed and screened for HIV and RTIs. HIV seroprevalence was 29.3%. Seropositivity was significantly associated with bacterial vaginosis, syphilis, gonorrhoea and/or Chlamydia trachomatis infection, warts and genital ulcers. Risk factors for HIV were absence of lactobacilli in vaginal fluid, vaginal pH >4.5, age >20 years, being unmarried, having had more than one lifetime sexual partner, having used a condom at least once in their lifetime, having experienced an infant mortality, and a partner who was non-monogamous or a frequent traveller. In view of the very high seroprevalence and concomitant RTIs in this population, we recommend promotion of women-controlled prevention methods along with proactive detection and treatment of RTIs.

Determinants of reproductive tract infections among asymptomatic women in Harare, Zimbabwe.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the prevalence of and risk factors for reproductive tract infections (RTI) among asymptomatic women attending primary health care clinics in Harare, Zimbabwe. DESIGN: A cross sectional study. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Prevalent RTI, HIV and socio-demographic data. SETTING: Two primary health care clinics in Harare. SUBJECTS: 393 consecutive, consenting women aged 15 to 49 years, presenting at the clinics for antenatal care, family planning, or bringing their children to attend preventive care clinics. RESULTS: More than half of the women had at least one ongoing RTI. Voluntary reporting of symptoms was almost non-existent. Prevalence of HIV was 29.3% and that of classical STIs was 15.4% Trichomoniasis vaginalis, 3.9% syphilis, 3.9% Chlamydia trachomatis and 1.8% Neisseria gonorrhoea. Bacteria vaginosis was diagnosed in 30.3% of the women and candidiasis in 25.4%. Presence of any RTI was significantly associated with lower level of education, sexual debut < 20 years, a non-monogamous partner, and use of a condom during the last sexual encounter. Independent factors associated with cervical infections were young age (< 20 years), being unmarried, current dysuria, warts, clinical signs of purulent or yellowish discharge, lower abdominal pain and cervical friability. Vaginitis was associated with sexual debut or marriage < 20 years, a partner who was a frequent traveller, history of STI, and presence of abnormal vaginal discharge. CONCLUSION: In view of the high prevalence of RTI and HIV and the low reporting of symptoms by infected women, it is recommended that strategies that improve women's awareness of urogenital symptoms be adopted, along with pro-active inquiry of genital symptoms by the health care workers, and treatment of RTIs, in order to reduce the unnecessary burden of RTIs.