Global hyperactivation of enhancers stabilizes human and mouse naive pluripotency through inhibition of CDK8/19 Mediator kinases.

Pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) transition between cell states in vitro, reflecting developmental changes in the early embryo. PSCs can be stabilized in the naive state by blocking extracellular differentiation stimuli, particularly FGF-MEK signalling. Here, we report that multiple features of the naive state in human and mouse PSCs can be recapitulated without affecting FGF-MEK signalling or global DNA methylation. Mechanistically, chemical inhibition of CDK8 and CDK19 (hereafter CDK8/19) kinases removes their ability to repress the Mediator complex at enhancers. CDK8/19 inhibition therefore increases Mediator-driven recruitment of RNA polymerase II (RNA Pol II) to promoters and enhancers. This efficiently stabilizes the naive transcriptional program and confers resistance to enhancer perturbation by BRD4 inhibition. Moreover, naive pluripotency during embryonic development coincides with a reduction in CDK8/19. We conclude that global hyperactivation of enhancers drives naive pluripotency, and this can be achieved in vitro by inhibiting CDK8/19 kinase activity. These principles may apply to other contexts of cellular plasticity.

A versatile drug delivery system targeting senescent cells.

Senescent cells accumulate in multiple aging-associated diseases, and eliminating these cells has recently emerged as a promising therapeutic approach. Here, we take advantage of the high lysosomal ß-galactosidase activity of senescent cells to design a drug delivery system based on the encapsulation of drugs with galacto-oligosaccharides. We show that gal-encapsulated fluorophores are preferentially released within senescent cells in mice. In a model of chemotherapy-induced senescence, gal-encapsulated cytotoxic drugs target senescent tumor cells and improve tumor xenograft regression in combination with palbociclib. Moreover, in a model of pulmonary fibrosis in mice, gal-encapsulated cytotoxics target senescent cells, reducing collagen deposition and restoring pulmonary function. Finally, gal-encapsulation reduces the toxic side effects of the cytotoxic drugs. Drug delivery into senescent cells opens new diagnostic and therapeutic applications for senescence-associated disorders.

PI3Kα inhibition reduces obesity in mice.

Partial inhibition of PI3K is one of the best-validated and evolutionary conserved manipulations to extend longevity. The best known health beneficial effects of reduced PI3K are related to metabolism and include increased energy expenditure, reduced nutrient storage, and protection from obesity. We have previously shown that a dual chemical inhibitor of the alpha and delta PI3K isoforms (CNIO-PI3Ki) reduces obesity in mice and monkeys, without evident toxic effects after long-term treatment. Here, we dissect the role of the alpha and delta PI3K isoforms by making use of selective inhibitors against PI3Kα (BYL-719 also known as alpelisib) or PI3Kδ (GS-9820 also known as acalisib). Treatment of mice with the above mentioned inhibitors indicated that BYL-719 increases energy expenditure in normal mice and efficiently reduces body weight in obese (ob/ob) mice, whereas these effects were not observed with GS-9820. Of note, the dose of BYL-719 required to reduce obesity was 10x higher than the equivalent dose of CNIO-PI3Ki, which could suggest that simultaneous inhibition of PI3K alpha and delta is more beneficial than single inhibition of the alpha isoform. In summary, we conclude that inhibition of PI3Kα is sufficient to increase energy expenditure and reduce obesity, and suggest that concomitant PI3Kα inhibition could play an auxiliary role.

Tissue damage and senescence provide critical signals for cellular reprogramming in vivo.

Reprogramming of differentiated cells into pluripotent cells can occur in vivo, but the mechanisms involved remain to be elucidated. Senescence is a cellular response to damage, characterized by abundant production of cytokines and other secreted factors that, together with the recruitment of inflammatory cells, result in tissue remodeling. Here, we show that in vivo expression of the reprogramming factors OCT4, SOX2, KLF4, and cMYC (OSKM) in mice leads to senescence and reprogramming, both coexisting in close proximity. Genetic and pharmacological analyses indicate that OSKM-induced senescence requires the Ink4a/Arf locus and, through the production of the cytokine interleukin-6, creates a permissive tissue environment for in vivo reprogramming. Biological conditions linked to senescence, such as tissue injury or aging, favor in vivo reprogramming by OSKM. These observations may be relevant for tissue repair.

p21Cip1 plays a critical role in the physiological adaptation to fasting through activation of PPARα.

Fasting is a physiological stress that elicits well-known metabolic adaptations, however, little is known about the role of stress-responsive tumor suppressors in fasting. Here, we have examined the expression of several tumor suppressors upon fasting in mice. Interestingly, p21 mRNA is uniquely induced in all the tissues tested, particularly in liver and muscle (>10 fold), and this upregulation is independent of p53. Remarkably, in contrast to wild-type mice, p21-null mice become severely morbid after prolonged fasting. The defective adaptation to fasting of p21-null mice is associated to elevated energy expenditure, accelerated depletion of fat stores, and premature activation of protein catabolism in the muscle. Analysis of the liver transcriptome and cell-based assays revealed that the absence of p21 partially impairs the transcriptional program of PPARα, a key regulator of fasting metabolism. Finally, treatment of p21-null mice with a PPARα agonist substantially protects them from their accelerated loss of fat upon fasting. We conclude that p21 plays a relevant role in fasting adaptation through the positive regulation of PPARα.

Pharmacological inhibition of PI3K reduces adiposity and metabolic syndrome in obese mice and rhesus monkeys.

Genetic inhibition of PI3K signaling increases energy expenditure, protects from obesity and metabolic syndrome, and extends longevity. Here, we show that two pharmacological inhibitors of PI3K, CNIO-PI3Ki and GDC-0941, decrease the adiposity of obese mice without affecting their lean mass. Long-term treatment of obese mice with low doses of CNIO-PI3Ki reduces body weight until reaching a balance that is stable for months as long as the treatment continues. CNIO-PI3Ki treatment also ameliorates liver steatosis and decreases glucose serum levels. The above observations have been recapitulated in independent laboratories and using different oral formulations of CNIO-PI3Ki. Finally, daily oral treatment of obese rhesus monkeys for 3 months with low doses of CNIO-PI3Ki decreased their adiposity and lowered their serum glucose levels, in the absence of detectable toxicities. Therefore, pharmacological inhibition of PI3K is an effective and safe anti-obesity intervention that could reverse the negative effects of metabolic syndrome in humans.

NOTCH pathway inactivation promotes bladder cancer progression.

NOTCH signaling suppresses tumor growth and proliferation in several types of stratified epithelia. Here, we show that missense mutations in NOTCH1 and NOTCH2 found in human bladder cancers result in loss of function. In murine models, genetic ablation of the NOTCH pathway accelerated bladder tumorigenesis and promoted the formation of squamous cell carcinomas, with areas of mesenchymal features. Using bladder cancer cells, we determined that the NOTCH pathway stabilizes the epithelial phenotype through its effector HES1 and, consequently, loss of NOTCH activity favors the process of epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Evaluation of human bladder cancer samples revealed that tumors with low levels of HES1 present mesenchymal features and are more aggressive. Together, our results indicate that NOTCH serves as a tumor suppressor in the bladder and that loss of this pathway promotes mesenchymal and invasive features.

Therapeutic effect of γ-secretase inhibition in KrasG12V-driven non-small cell lung carcinoma by derepression of DUSP1 and inhibition of ERK.

Here, we have investigated the role of the Notch pathway in the generation and maintenance of Kras(G12V)-driven non-small cell lung carcinomas (NSCLCs). We demonstrate by genetic means that γ-secretase and RBPJ are essential for the formation of NSCLCs. Of importance, pharmacologic treatment of mice carrying autochthonous NSCLCs with a γ-secretase inhibitor (GSI) blocks cancer growth. Treated carcinomas present reduced HES1 levels and reduced phosphorylated ERK without changes in phosphorylated MEK. Mechanistically, we show that HES1 directly binds to and represses the promoter of DUSP1, encoding a dual phosphatase that is active against phospho-ERK. Accordingly, GSI treatment upregulates DUSP1 and decreases phospho-ERK. These data provide proof of the in vivo therapeutic potential of GSIs in primary NSCLCs.

Pten positively regulates brown adipose function, energy expenditure, and longevity.

Aging in worms and flies is regulated by the PI3K/Akt/Foxo pathway. Here we extend this paradigm to mammals. Pten(tg) mice carrying additional genomic copies of Pten are protected from cancer and present a significant extension of life span that is independent of their lower cancer incidence. Interestingly, Pten(tg) mice have an increased energy expenditure and protection from metabolic pathologies. The brown adipose tissue (BAT) of Pten(tg) mice is hyperactive and presents high levels of the uncoupling protein Ucp1, which we show is a target of Foxo1. Importantly, a synthetic PI3K inhibitor also increases energy expenditure and hyperactivates the BAT in mice. These effects can be recapitulated in isolated brown adipocytes and, moreover, implants of Pten(tg) fibroblasts programmed with Prdm16 and Cebpß form subcutaneous brown adipose pads more efficiently than wild-type fibroblasts. These observations uncover a role of Pten in promoting energy expenditure, thus decreasing nutrient storage and its associated damage.

Limited role of Sirt1 in cancer protection by dietary restriction.

Dietary restriction (DR) has multiple beneficial effects, the two most prominently studied being an increased longevity and an increased cancer protection. Mammalian Sirt1 is a protein deacetylase that has been linked to DR. To explore the relation between Sirt1 and DR, we have examined here DR-induced cancer protection in mice overexpressing Sirt1 (2-3 fold) under its own regulatory elements (Sirt1-tg mice). In particular, we have subjected p53­deficient mice, carrying or not the Sirt1-tg allele, to every-other-day fasting (EOD), which is a type of DR that significantly delays cancer onset. As expected, EOD extended the survival of p53-heterozygous (p53 (+/-) ) mice. However, the extension of survival of p53-heterozygous mice by EOD was the same in the presence or absence of the Sirt1-tg allele. These results suggest that Sirt1 has a limited role in mediating cancer protection by DR in mammals.

Sirt1 improves healthy ageing and protects from metabolic syndrome-associated cancer.

Genetic overexpression of protein deacetylase Sir2 increases longevity in a variety of lower organisms, and this has prompted interest in the effects of its closest mammalian homologue, Sirt1, on ageing and cancer. We have generated transgenic mice moderately overexpressing Sirt1 under its own regulatory elements (Sirt1-tg). Old Sirt1-tg mice present lower levels of DNA damage, decreased expression of the ageing-associated gene p16(Ink4a), a better general health and fewer spontaneous carcinomas and sarcomas. These effects, however, were not sufficiently potent to affect longevity. To further extend these observations, we developed a metabolic syndrome-associated liver cancer model in which wild-type mice develop multiple carcinomas. Sirt1-tg mice show a reduced susceptibility to liver cancer and exhibit improved hepatic protection from both DNA damage and metabolic damage. Together, these results provide direct proof of the anti-ageing activity of Sirt1 in mammals and of its tumour suppression activity in ageing- and metabolic syndrome-associated cancer.