Outcomes of antiretroviral therapy among younger versus older adolescents and adults in an urban clinic, Zimbabwe.

SETTING: A non-governmental organisation-supported clinic offering health services including antiretroviral therapy (ART). OBJECTIVE: To compare ART retention between younger (age 10-14 years) vs. older (age 15-19 years) adolescents and younger (age 20-29 years) vs. older (age ⩾30 years) adults and determine adolescent- and adult-specific attrition-associated factors among those initiated on ART between 2010 and 2011. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. RESULTS: Of 110 (7%) adolescents and 1484 (93%) adults included in the study, no differences in retention were observed between younger vs. older adolescents at 6, 12 and 24 months. More younger adolescents were initiated with body mass index <16 kg/m(2) compared with older adolescents (64% vs. 47%; P = 0.04). There were more females (74% vs. 52%, P < 0.001) and fewer patients initiating ART with CD4 count ⩽350 cells/mm(3) (77% vs. 81%, P = 0.007) among younger vs. older adults. Younger adults demonstrated more attrition than older adults at all time-points. No attrition risk factors were observed among adolescents. Attrition-associated factors among adults included being younger, having a lower CD4 count and advanced human immunodeficiency virus disease at initiation, and initiation on a stavudine-based regimen. CONCLUSION: Younger adults demonstrated greater attrition and may require more attention. We were unable to demonstrate differences in attrition among younger vs. older adolescents. Loss to follow-up was the main reason for attrition across all age groups. Overall, earlier presentation for ART care appears important for improved ART retention among adults.

Contexte : Un centre de santé soutenu par une organisation non gouvernementale offrant des services de santé, notamment les services de traitement antirétroviral (TAR).Objectif : Comparer la rétention du TAR entre des adolescents plus jeunes (10­14 ans) et plus âgés (15­19 ans) et des adultes plus jeunes (20­29 ans) et plus âgés (⩾30 ans) et déterminer les facteurs associés à l'attrition et spécifiques des adolescents et des adultes parmi ceux qui ont mis en route du TAR en 2010­2011.Schéma : Etude rétrospective de cohorte.Résultats : L'étude a inclus 110 (7%) adolescents et 1484 (93%) adultes. Aucune différence en termes de rétention n'a été observée entre les adolescents plus jeunes et plus âgés à 6, 12 et 24 mois. Davantage des plus jeunes adolescents ont été initiés au traitement avec un index de masse corporelle <16 kg/m2 comparé aux adolescents plus âgés (64% contre 47% ; P = 0,04). Il y avait plus de femmes (74% contre 52% ; P < 0,001) et moins de patients démarrant le TAR avec un comptage de CD4 ⩽ 350 cellules/mm3 (77% contre 81% ; P = 0,007) parmi les adultes plus jeunes comparés aux plus âgés. Les adultes plus jeunes ont eu davantage d'attrition à tout moment que les plus âgés. Aucun facteur de risque d'attrition n'a été observé parmi les adolescents. Chez les adultes, les facteurs associés à l'attrition ont inclus l'âge plus jeune, un comptage de CD4 plus faible et une infection au virus de l'immunodéficience humaine plus avancée lors de la mise en route du traitement et son initiation dans le cadre d'un protocole basé sur la stavudine.Conclusion : Les adultes plus jeunes ont eu davantage d'attrition et devraient susciter davantage d'attention. Nous n'avons pas pu démontrer de différences d'attrition entre les adolescents plus jeunes et plus âgés. La perte de vue a été la cause principale d'attrition dans tous les groupes d'âge. Dans l'ensemble, un démarrage plus précoce du TAR parait important pour améliorer la rétention du TAR chez les adultes.

Marco de referencia: Un consultorio administrado por una organización no gubernamental que presta servicios de salud, como la administración del tratamiento antirretrovírico (TAR).Objetivo: Comparar la fidelización al TAR entre los jóvenes (de 10 a 14 años) y los adolescentes mayores (de 15 a 19 años) y entre los adultos jóvenes (de 20 a 29 años) y los adultos de más edad (a partir de los 30 años) y determinar los factores específicos de los adolescentes y los adultos que se asocian con la tasa de abandono, en las personas que iniciaron el tratamiento del 2010 al 2011.Método: Fue este un estudio de cohortes retrospectivo.Resultados: Se incluyeron en el estudio 110 adolescentes (7%) y 1484 adultos (93%). No se observaron diferencias en la fidelización de los jóvenes y los adolescentes mayores a los 6, 12 y 24 meses. En el grupo de adolescentes jóvenes, recibió TAR una proporción mayor de los que presentaban un índice de masa corporal <16 kg/m2 que en el grupo de adolescentes mayores (64% contra 47%; P = 0,04). En comparación con los adultos de más edad, los adultos jóvenes que iniciaron el tratamiento fueron con mayor frecuencia de sexo femenino (74% contra 52%; P < 0,001), pero una proporción menor presentaba un recuento de linfocitos CD4 ⩽ 350 células/mm3 (77% contra 81%; P = 0,007). El abandono del tratamiento fue más frecuente en los adultos jóvenes que en los adultos mayores en todos los momentos examinados. No se observaron factores de riesgo de abandono en los adolescentes. En los adultos, los factores asociados con el abandono fueron una menor edad, el recuento más bajo de linfocitos CD4 y la enfermedad avanzada por el virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana en el momento de iniciar el tratamiento y el comienzo de un régimen basado en estavudina.Conclusión: En los adultos más jóvenes la tasa de abandono del TAR fue más alta y precisan una mayor atención. No fue posible poner en evidencia diferencias en la tasa de abandono de los adolescentes más jóvenes y los adolescentes de mayor edad. La principal causa del abandono en todos los grupos de edad fue la pérdida durante el seguimiento. En general, la búsqueda temprana de TAR es un factor importante en la fidelización al tratamiento de los pacientes adultos.

Is Zimbabwe ready to transition from anonymous unlinked sero-surveillance to using prevention of mother to child transmission of HIV (PMTCT) program data for HIV surveillance?: results of PMTCT utility study, 2012.

BACKGROUND: Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV (PMTCT) programs collect socio-demographic and HIV testing information similar to that collected by unlinked anonymous testing sero-surveillance (UAT) in antenatal settings. Zimbabwe evaluated the utility of PMTCT data in replacing UAT. METHODS: A UAT dataset was created by capturing socio-demographic, testing practices from the woman's booking-card and testing remnant blood at a laboratory from 1 June to 30 September 2012. PMTCT data were collected retrospectively from ANC registers. UAT and PMTCT data were linked by bar-code labels that were temporarily affixed to the ANC register. A questionnaire was used to obtain facility-level data at 53 sites. RESULTS: Pooled HIV prevalence was 15.8 % (95 % CI 15.3-16.4) among 17,349 women sampled by UAT, and 16.3 % (95 % CI 15.8 %-16.9 %) among 17,150 women in PMTCT datasets for 53 sites. Pooled national percent-positive agreement (PPA) was 91.2 %, and percent-negative agreement (PNA) was 98.7 % for 16,782 women with matched UAT and PMTCT data. Based on UAT methods, overall median prevalence was 12.9 % (Range 4.0 %-19.4 %) among acceptors and refusers of HIV test in PMTCT compared to 12.5 % ((Range 3.4 %-19.5 %) among acceptors in ANC registers. There were variations in prevalence by site. CONCLUSION: Although, there is no statistical difference between pooled HIV prevalence in UAT compared to PMTCT program, the overall PPA of 91.2 % and PNA of 98.7 % fall below World Health Organisation (WHO) benchmarks of 97.6 % and 99.6 % respectively. Zimbabwe will need to strengthen quality assurance (QA) of rapid HIV testing and data collection practices. Sites with good performance should be prioritised for transitioning.

Monitoring of early warning indicators for HIV drug resistance in antiretroviral therapy clinics in Zimbabwe.

Monitoring human immunodeficiency virus drug resistance (HIVDR) early warning indicators (EWIs) can help national antiretroviral treatment (ART) programs to identify clinic factors associated with HIVDR emergence and provide evidence to support national program and clinic-level adjustments, if necessary. World Health Organization-recommended HIVDR EWIs were monitored in Zimbabwe using routinely available data at selected ART clinics between 2007 and 2009. As Zimbabwe's national ART coverage increases, improved ART information systems are required to strengthen routine national ART monitoring and evaluation and facilitate scale-up of HIVDR EWI monitoring. Attention should be paid to minimizing loss to follow-up, supporting adherence, and ensuring clinic-level drug supply continuity.

ART uptake, its timing and relation to anti-tuberculosis treatment outcomes among HIV-infected TB patients.

SETTING: All public health facilities in two provinces of Zimbabwe. OBJECTIVE: To determine, among tuberculosis (TB) patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) registered in 2010, 1) the proportion started on antiretroviral treatment (ART), 2) the timing of ART in relation to the start of anti-tuberculosis treatment, and 3) whether timing of ART influenced anti-tuberculosis treatment outcomes. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. RESULTS: Of the 2655 HIV-positive TB patients, 1115 (42%) were documented as receiving ART. Of these, 178 (16%) started ART prior to anti-tuberculosis treatment. Of those who started after anti-tuberculosis treatment, 17% started within 2 weeks, 43% between 2 and 8 weeks and 40% after 8 weeks. Treatment success in the cohort was 82%, with 14% deaths before completion of anti-tuberculosis treatment. Not receiving ART during anti-tuberculosis treatment was associated with lower anti-tuberculosis treatment success (adjusted RR 0.70, 95%CI 0.53-0.91) and more deaths (adjusted RR 3.43, 95%CI 2.2-5.36). There were no differences in TB treatment outcomes by timing of ART initiation. CONCLUSION: ART uptake is low given the improved treatment outcomes in those put on ART during anti-tuberculosis treatment. Better integration of HIV and TB services is needed to ensure increased coverage and earlier ART uptake.

What proportion of patients diagnosed with TB and started on treatment in Manicaland Province, Zimbabwe, are registered?

A retrospective record review was carried out in selected districts in Manicaland Province, Zimbabwe, to compare the number of patients diagnosed and started on anti-TB treatment with the number listed in the TB register. There were 574 patients (290 females) diagnosed and treated for TB during the first 6 months of 2010, of whom 248 (43%) were not registered. Not being registered was associated with attending a rural hospital. An unacceptably high proportion of patients diagnosed and treated for TB were not being registered and were therefore not reported to national authorities or the WHO. The registration process in Zimbabwe requires review.

Estimating the resources required in the roll-out of universal access to antiretroviral treatment in Zimbabwe.

OBJECTIVES: To develop projections of the resources required (person-years of drug supply and healthcare worker time) for universal access to antiretroviral treatment (ART) in Zimbabwe. METHODS: A stochastic mathematical model of disease progression, diagnosis, clinical monitoring and survival in HIV infected individuals. FINDINGS: The number of patients receiving ART is determined by many factors, including the strategy of the ART programme (method of initiation, frequency of patient monitoring, ability to include patients diagnosed before ART became available), other healthcare services (referral rates from antenatal clinics, uptake of HIV testing), demographic and epidemiological conditions (past and future trends in incidence rates and population growth) as well as the medical impact of ART (average survival and the relationship with CD4 count when initiated). The variations in these factors lead to substantial differences in long-term projections; with universal access by 2010 and no further prevention interventions, between 370 000 and almost 2 million patients could be receiving treatment in 2030-a fivefold difference. Under universal access, by 2010 each doctor will initiate ART for up to two patients every day and the case-load for nurses will at least triple as more patients enter care and start treatment. CONCLUSIONS: The resources required by ART programmes are great and depend on the healthcare systems and the demographic/epidemiological context. This leads to considerable uncertainty in long-term projections and large variation in the resources required in different countries and over time. Understanding how current practices relate to future resource requirements can help optimise ART programmes and inform long-term public health planning.

Treatment outcomes of new adult tuberculosis patients in relation to HIV status in Zimbabwe.

SETTING: All public health facilities in Chitungwiza District, Zimbabwe. OBJECTIVE: To determine, in new tuberculosis (TB) patients registered in 2009, 1) the proportion of persons human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) tested, stratified by age, sex and type of TB, and 2) treatment outcomes in relation to type of TB and HIV status. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. RESULTS: Of 1800 TB patients, 1100 (61%) were tested, of whom 877 (80%) were HIV-positive and 75 (9%) were documented as receiving antiretroviral treatment (ART). HIV testing and HIV positivity were similar between patients with different types of TB. Overall, the treatment success rate was 70%, and 17% had transferred out. Being HIV-positive on ART was associated with better treatment success and lower transfer out; age ≥55 years was associated with poor treatment success and higher death rates. Defaulting was more common in those who did not undergo smear testing or in extra-pulmonary TB patients, while deaths were higher in males. CONCLUSION: In a Zimbabwe district, less than two thirds of TB patients were tested. Better treatment success was observed in patients documented as HIV-positive and on ART. Important lessons for improved TB control include increasing HIV testing uptake for better access to ART, more comprehensive recording practices on ART and better reporting on true outcomes of transfer-out patients.

Do behavioural differences help to explain variations in HIV prevalence in adolescents in sub-Saharan Africa?

OBJECTIVE: To compare adolescent risk factors for HIV infection in two countries with high adolescent HIV prevalence and two lower prevalence countries with the aim of identifying risk factors that may help explain differences in adolescent HIV prevalence. METHODS: Data were available from two nationally representative surveys (South Africa, Zimbabwe), two behavioural intervention trials (Tanzania, Zimbabwe) and one population-based cohort (Uganda). Data on variables known or postulated to be risk factors for HIV infection were compared. RESULTS: Few risk behaviours were markedly more common in the high HIV prevalence populations. Risk factors more common in high HIV prevalence settings were genital ulcers and discharge, and women were more likely to report older male partners. DISCUSSION: Age mixing may be an important determinate of HIV prevalence in adolescents. Potential reasons for the general lack of association between other adolescent risk factors and adolescent HIV prevalence include adult HIV prevalence, misreported behaviour, different survey methods and other unmeasured adolescent behaviours. If adult factors dominate adolescent HIV risk, it would help explain the failure of behavioural interventions targeted at adolescents and suggests future interventions should include adults.

A report on the Zimbabwe Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) programme progress towards achieving MGD6 target 6B: achievement and challenges.

Zimbabwe's target to achieve Universal Access to treatment for HIV and AIDS, was severely affected by a decade long economic recession that threatened to reverse all the country's social and economic indicators. Despite these challenges, by September 2010, 282,916 adults and children (47.7% of those in need of treatment) were on treatment at 509 sites countrywide since national scale up started. ART services are predominantly offered through the public sector, with the private sector being an untapped potential resource for ART services for the future. Challenges of skilled and adequately trained human resources have hindered progress towards service availability. Providing access to children in particular has been constrained by lack of clinical mentorship for health workers, weak systems for support supervision, and inadequate HIV diagnostic services especially for children under 18 months and challenges with follow up of the HIV-exposed infants. Though the country has not met its target of Universal Access by 2010, significant progress has been made with over a 30-fold increase in service availability.

The role of testing and counselling for HIV prevention and care in the era of scaling-up antiretroviral therapy.

OBJECTIVE: HIV Testing and Counselling (TC) programmes are being scaled-up as part of efforts to provide universal access to antiretroviral treatment (ART). METHODS AND FINDINGS: Mathematical modelling of TC in Zimbabwe shows that if universal access is to be sustained, TC must include prevention counselling that enables behaviour change among infected and uninfected individuals. The predicted impact TC is modest, but improved programmes could generate substantial reductions in incidence, reducing need for ART in the long-term. CONCLUSIONS: TC programmes that focus only on identifying those in need of treatment will not be sufficient to bring the epidemic under control.

HIV prevalence and trends from data in Zimbabwe, 1997-2004.

BACKGROUND: This paper brings together data from a variety of reports to provide a basis for assessing future steps for responding to and monitoring the HIV epidemic in Zimbabwe. METHOD: Data reported from four antenatal clinic (ANC) surveys conducted between 2000 and 2004, two small local studies in Zimbabwe conducted from 1997 through 2003, four general population surveys from 1999 through 2003, and service statistics covering 1990 through 2004 were used to describe recent trends in HIV prevalence and incidence, behaviour change, and programme provision. RESULTS: HIV prevalence among pregnant women attending ANCs declined substantially from 32.1% in 2000 to 23.9% in 2004. The local studies confirmed the decline in prevalence. However, prevalence continued to be high. Sexual behaviour data from surveys suggests a reduction in sexual experience before age 15 years among both males and females age 15-19 years, and in the proportions of males and females aged 15-29 years reporting non-regular sexual partners in the past 12 months. Reported condom use with non-regular partners has been high since 1999. Condom distribution and HIV counseling and testing increased from 2000 to 2004. DISCUSSION: On the basis of examination of data from a variety of sources, the recent decrease in HIV prevalence may be related to recent reductions in early-age sexual activity and non-regular sexual partnerships and increases in condom use. Comparison of data from sentinel surveillance systems, population based serosurveys, local studies, and service statistics provide increased confidence that a decline in HIV prevalence in Zimbabwe is actually happening in the population.