Alleviating anxiety in patients prior to MRI: A pilot single-centre single-blinded randomised controlled trial to compare video demonstration or telephone conversation with a radiographer versus routine intervention.

INTRODUCTION: Patients undergoing MRI often experience anxiety prior and during scanning. The aim of this study was to explore two simple, cost-effective and easily implemented interventions to reduce anxiety pre MRI scanning. METHODS: Seventy four patients attending first time for a MRI head, spine or cardiac scan were randomised into one of three interventions: video demonstration; telephone conversation with a radiographer; or routine MRI preparation (appointment letter). The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) questionnaire was used to measure anxiety levels both pre and post intervention. Motion artefacts were visually assessed by 2 observers and a post scan survey was used to capture patient's satisfaction. RESULTS: ANCOVA revealed a significant reduction of anxiety in the video group (F = 13.664, p = 0.001), and also in the telephone group (F = 6.443, p = 0.015) compared to control patients. No significant difference was found between the two interventions (F = 0.665, p = 0.419). No difference was seen in motion artefacts between all three groups (Chi2 = 2.363 (p = 0.359) for observer 1 and Chi2 = 1.280 (p = 0.865) for observer 2). Fifty one percent (51.4%) of patients admitted to being anxious, with the possible outcome of the MRI results being the most common (18.9%) reason given for anxiety. CONCLUSION: This study has demonstrated that either of the interventions used can significantly reduce pre-MRI anxiety, with the video performing slightly better than the phone call intervention. Importantly, the routine appointment letter did not contain enough information to satisfy most patients, which argues strongly for a change in current practice.

The use of neuroimaging in dementia by Irish general practitioners.

BACKGROUND: More than 48,000 people in Ireland are living with dementia, and the number is likely to rise to 130,000 by 2041. Dementia frequently remains undiagnosed, depriving many of early interventions and the opportunity to plan for the future. Neuroimaging is helpful in the diagnosis of dementia, yet it is often insufficiently utilised. General practitioners (GPs) often decide which patients should be referred on for specialist assessment and as such play a crucial role in dementia diagnosis. AIMS: To establish the accessibility of neuroimaging in dementia by GPs, current referral patterns, confidence in referral and opinions on radiology reports. METHODS: The research design was a postal survey among GPs in single and group practices in urban, rural and semi-rural areas in the east and southeast of Ireland. GPs were identified from the Irish Medical Directory and posted individual anonymous questionnaires. RESULTS: A third of participants reported that they had no direct access to neuroimaging. Access differed between public and private patients. GPs primarily referred to computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging, but only 14.6 % based these referrals on published guidelines. A total of 47.8 % of participants were not very confident in their ability to choose the most appropriate modality. CONCLUSION: Access to neuroimaging investigations for suspected cases of dementia varies between locations and public and private systems. To improve diagnostic rates and ensure appropriate utilisation of imaging resources, GPs require access to clinical and referral guidelines to ensure appropriate use of neuroimaging and the best possible patient outcomes.

1H-MRS at 4 tesla in minimally treated early schizophrenia.

We investigated glutamate-related neuronal dysfunction in the anterior cingulate (AC) early in schizophrenia before and after antipsychotic treatment. A total of 14 minimally treated schizophrenia patients and 10 healthy subjects were studied with single-voxel proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy ((1)H-MRS) of the AC, frontal white matter and thalamus at 4 T. Concentrations of N-acetylaspartate (NAA), glutamate (Glu), glutamine (Gln) and Gln/Glu ratios were determined and corrected for the partial tissue volume. Patients were treated with antipsychotic medication following a specific algorithm and (1)H-MRS was repeated after 1, 6 and 12 months. There were group x region interactions for baseline NAA (P=0.074) and Gln/Glu (P=0.028): schizophrenia subjects had lower NAA (P=0.045) and higher Gln/Glu (P=0.006) in the AC before treatment. In addition, AC Gln/Glu was inversely related to AC NAA in the schizophrenia (P=0.0009) but not in the control group (P=0.92). Following antipsychotic treatment, there were no further changes in NAA, Gln/Glu or any of the other metabolites in any of the regions studied. We conclude that early in the illness, schizophrenia patients already show abnormalities in glutamatergic metabolism and reductions in NAA consistent with glutamate-related excitotoxicity.

Quantitative spectroscopic imaging with in situ measurements of tissue water T1, T2, and density.

The use of tissue water as a concentration standard in proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy ((1)H-MRS) of the brain requires that the water proton signal be adjusted for relaxation and partial volume effects. While single voxel (1)H-MRS studies have often included measurements of water proton T(1), T(2), and density based on additional (1)H-MRS acquisitions (e.g., at multiple echo or repetition times), this approach is not practical for (1)H-MRS imaging ((1)H-MRSI). In this report we demonstrate a method for using in situ measurements of water T(1), T(2), and density to calculate metabolite concentrations from (1)H-MRSI data. The relaxation and density data are coregistered with the (1)H-MRSI data and provide detailed information on the water signal appropriate to the individual subject and tissue region. We present data from both healthy subjects and a subject with brain lesions, underscoring the importance of water parameter measurements on a subject-by-subject and voxel-by-voxel basis.

Mitochondrial function in physically active elders with sarcopenia.

Physical activity is reported to protect against sarcopenia and preserve mitochondrial function. Healthy normal lean (NL: n=15) and sarcopenic (SS: n=9) participants were recruited based on body composition (DXA, Lunar DPX), age, and physical activity. Gastrocnemius mitochondrial function was assessed by (31)P MRS using steady-state exercise in a 4T Bruker Biospin. Total work (429.3+/-160.2J vs. 851.0+/-211.7J, p<0.001) and muscle volume (p=0.006) were lower in SS, although these variables were not correlated (NL r=-0.31, p=0.33, SS r=(0.03, p=0.93). In the SS resting ATP/ADP was lower (p=0.03) and ATP hydrolysis higher (p=0.02) at rest. Free energy ATP hydrolysis was greater at the end of exercise (p=0.02) and [ADP] relative to total work output was higher in SS (ANCOVA, p=0.005). [PCr] recovery kinetics were not different between the groups. Adjusting these parameters for differences in total work output and muscle volume did not explain these findings. These data suggest that aerobic metabolism in physically active older adults with sarcopenia is mildly impaired at rest and during modest levels of exercise where acidosis was avoided. Muscle energetics is coordinated at multiple cellular levels and further studies are needed to determine the loci/locus of energy instability in sarcopenia.

Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES) in pregnancy: a diagnostic challenge to obstetricians.

Post-partum clinical presentation with seizures and focal neurological deficit has a wide differential diagnosis. Two cases of the rare condition Posterior Reversible Encephalopathy Syndrome (PRES) associated with pregnancy are presented with complete recovery following multidisciplinary care. One of the cases was associated with Factor VII deficiency in pregnancy and the other with twin gestation and psoas abcess.

Changing the glucose cut-off values that define hypoglycaemia has a major effect on reported frequencies of hypoglycaemia.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: The aim of this analysis was to quantify the relationship between the frequency of hypoglycaemia and various glucose cut-off points for the definition of hypoglycaemia, within a range of HbA(1c) strata. METHODS: Data from two trials examining insulin glargine dose titration in 12,837 type 2 diabetic participants starting insulin therapy were combined. Curves for hypoglycaemia frequency plotted against endpoint HbA(1c) level were constructed, using a range of glucose cut-off points for hypoglycaemia. RESULTS: During the 12-week study period, 3,912 patients recorded 21,592 hypoglycaemic episodes, comprising 242 severe, 8,871 symptomatic and 12,479 asymptomatic events, corresponding to hypoglycaemia event rates of 0.10, 3.8 and 5.3 events per patient year. Increasing the hypoglycaemia cut-off point from, for instance, <3.1 to <3.9 mmol/l more than doubled the percentage of affected patients, e.g. from 17.7 to 43.3% at HbA(1c) 7.0-7.2%. At higher hypoglycaemia cut-off points the proportion of patients having only asymptomatic hypoglycaemia increased, e.g. from 30.7% at <3.1 mmol/l to 61.7% of patients at a cut-off point of <3.9 mmol/l. In sensitivity analysis, 121 of 1,756 patients with at least one self-monitored blood glucose value <3.1 mmol/l experienced severe hypoglycaemia, compared with 149 of 3,912 patients with a self-monitored blood glucose level of <3.9 mmol/l. Thus, to identify 28 more patients with severe hypoglycaemia, the number of patients experiencing only non-severe hypoglycaemia more than doubled. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: The glucose cut-off point defining hypoglycaemia greatly affects the reported frequency of hypoglycaemia. When hypoglycaemia is to be defined by a predetermined glucose level, to have clinical relevance the cut-off should be set at a lower level than the threshold of 3.9 mmol/l proposed by the American Diabetes Association.

Results of a phase IIa clinical trial of an anti-inflammatory molecule, chaperonin 10, in multiple sclerosis.

BACKGROUND: Chaperonin 10 (Cpn10) is a mitochondrial molecule involved in protein folding. The aim of this study was to determine the safety profile of Cpn10 in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS). METHODS: A total of 50 patients with relapse-remitting or secondary progressive MS were intravenously administered 5 mg or 10 mg of Cpn10 weekly for 12 weeks in a double-blind, randomized, placebo controlled, phase II trial. Clinical reviews, including Expanded Disability Status Scale and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with Gadolinium, were undertaken every 4 weeks. Stimulation of patient peripheral blood mononuclear cells with lipopolysaccharide ex vivo was used to measure the in vivo activity of Cpn10. RESULTS: No significant differences in the frequency of adverse events were seen between treatment and placebo arms. Leukocytes from both groups of Cpn10-treated patients produced significantly lower levels of critical proinflammatory cytokines. A trend toward improvement in new Gadolinium-enhancing lesions on MRI was observed, but this difference was not statistically significant. No differences in clinical outcome measures were seen. CONCLUSIONS: Cpn10 is safe and well tolerated when administered to patients with MS for 3 months, however, a further extended phase II study primarily focused on efficacy is warranted.

Calidad de vida en mujeres con cáncer cérvico uterino / Quality of life in women with cervical cancer

Antecedentes: El cáncer cérvico uterino (CaCu) es la cuarta causa de muerte por cáncer en Chile y la primera entre los 20 a 44 años. Debido a efectivos métodos de pesquisa y tratamientos oportunos, cada vez es mayor el número de usuarias que viven libres de enfermedad, lo que hace fundamental valorar la calidad de vida (CV). Objetivo: Revisar la literatura con el objetivo de conocer de qué manera se afecta la CV de estas mujeres. Resultados: La revisión de literatura muestra una gran cantidad de instrumentos utilizados para medir CV en mujeres con CaCu, principalmente genéricos, como también cuestionarios que evalúan aspectos por separado. La dimensión más afectada durante todo el proceso de enfermedad, es la dimensión sexual. La modalidad de tratamiento se considera clave en la repercusión en esta dimensión; la radioterapia al ser un tratamiento localizado produce alteraciones físicas que repercuten en la sexualidad, en cambio la cirugía afecta mayormente el aspecto psicológico. Conclusión: La CV en las mujeres con CaCu se ve alterada en todas sus dimensiones, principalmente en la dimensión sexual. Se postula la importancia de considerar la CV como un parámetro útil de evaluación, para de esta manera brindar una intervención oportuna, centrada en la necesidad que ellas presentan.

Closed-head minimal traumatic brain injury produces long-term cognitive deficits in mice.

Victims of minimal traumatic brain injury (mTBI) do not show clear morphological brain defects, but frequently suffer lasting cognitive deficits, emotional difficulties and behavioral disturbances. In the present study we adopted a non-invasive closed-head weight-drop mouse model to produce mTBI. We examined the effects of 20, 25, or 30 g weight drop 7, 30, 60 and 90 days following injury on mice's ability to perform the Morris water maze. The mice suffered profound long-lasting learning and memory deficits that were force- and time-dependent. Although the injured mice could acquire the task, they could not improve their initial escape latency by more than 50%, while normal mice improved by up to 450% (P<0.001). In order to directly compare the learning ability of individual mice following our mTBI we have devised a new measure which we term learning rate. We define learning rate as the rate the mouse improved its own performance in consecutive trials in a given experimental day. The learning rate of control mice increased linearly throughout the testing period with a slope of approximately 0.9. Injured mice that sustained 20 and 25 g weight drop could also improve their learning rate linearly but with a slope of only 0.2. Mice who sustained 30 g weight drop could not improve their learning rate linearly and reached a plateau after the third experimental learning day. These results indicate that the severity of injury may correlate with the degree of integration of the learning task. These cognitive deficits occurred without any other clear neurological damage, no evident brain edema, no notable damage to the blood-brain barrier and no early anatomical changes to the brain (observed by magnetic resonance imaging imaging). These results demonstrate that persistent deficits of cognitive learning abilities in mice, similar to those observed in human post-concussive syndrome, can follow mTBI without any anatomical damage to the brain and its surrounding tissue.

Trial of roxithromycin in subjects with asthma and serological evidence of infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae.

An association has been reported between chronic infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae and the severity of asthma, and uncontrolled observations have suggested that treatment with antibiotics active against C. pneumoniae leads to an improvement in asthma control. We studied the effect of roxithromycin in subjects with asthma and immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies to C. pneumoniae > or = 1:64 and/or IgA antibodies > or = 1:16. A total of 232 subjects, from Australia, New Zealand, Italy, or Argentina, were randomized to 6 wk of treatment with roxithromycin 150 mg twice a day or placebo. At the end of 6 wk, the increase from baseline in evening peak expiratory flow (PEF) was 15 L/min with roxithromycin and 3 L/min with placebo (p = 0.02). With morning PEF, the increase was 14 L/min with roxithromycin and 8 L/min with placebo (NS). In the Australasian population, the increase in morning PEF was 18 L/min and 4 L/min, respectively (p = 0.04). At 3 mo and 6 mo after the end of treatment, differences between the two groups were smaller and not significant. Six weeks of treatment with roxithromycin led to improvements in asthma control but the benefit was not sustained. Further studies are necessary to determine whether the lack of sustained benefit is due to failure to eradicate C. pneumoniae.

Small shifts in craniotomy position in the lateral fluid percussion injury model are associated with differential lesion development.

Previous studies have shown that location and direction of injury may affect outcome in experimental models of traumatic brain injury. Significant variability in outcome data has also been noted in studies using the lateral fluid percussion brain injury model (FPI) in rats. In recent studies from our laboratory, we observed considerable variability in localization and severity of tissue damage as a function of small changes in craniotomy position. To further address this issue, we examined the relationship between craniotomy position and brain lesion size/location in rats subjected to moderate FPI (2.28 +/- 0.18 atmospheres). With placement of a 5-mm craniotomy adjacent to the sagittal suture, there was both ipsilateral and contralateral damage as detected at 3 weeks posttrauma using T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The MRI lesions were generally restricted to the hippocampus and subcortical layers. Shifting of the craniotomy site laterally was associated with increased ipsilateral tissue damage and a greater cortical component that correlated with distance from the sagittal suture. In contrast, the contralateral MRI lesion did not change significantly in size or location unless the center of the craniotomy was placed more than 3.5 mm from the sagittal suture, under which condition contralateral damage could no longer be detected. Ipsilateral tissue damage as determined from the MRI scans was linearly correlated to motor outcome but not with cognitive outcome as assessed by the Morris Water Maze. We conclude that craniotomy position is critical in determining extent and location of tissue injury produced during the lateral FPI model in rats. Addressing such potential variability is essential for studies that address either injury mechanisms or therapeutic treatments.

Presence of DNA fragmentation and lack of neuroprotective effect in DFF45 knockout mice subjected to traumatic brain injury.

BACKGROUND: Apoptosis plays an important pathophysiologic role in neuronal cell loss and associated neurologic deficits following traumatic brain injury (TBI). DNA fragmentation represents one of the characteristic biochemical features of neuronal apoptosis and is observed after experimental TBI. DFF45 and DFF40 are essential for DNA fragmentation in various models of apoptosis. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We used mice deficient in DFF45 and wild-type controls. Oligonucleosomal DNA fragmentation induced by TBI was analyzed using in vivo and in vitro assays. Expression and integrity of DFF45 and DFF40 proteins was assessed by Western analysis. Other outcome measurements included neurologic scoring, learning/memory tests, lesion volume measurements (MRI), and assessment of cell viability in vitro among others. RESULTS: We compared the effects of controlled cortical impact (CCI) trauma in DFF45 knockout mice and wild-type controls. Analysis of TBI-induced DNA fragmentation in brain cortex from wild-type and DFF45 knockout mice indicates that, although somewhat delayed, oligonucleosomal cleavage of DNA occurs after TBI in DFF45 knockout mice. DFF45 knockouts showed no significant differences in behavioral outcomes or lesion volumes after TBI as compared to wild-type controls. Using an in vitro reconstitution system, we also demonstrated that cleavage of DFF45 by caspase-3 is not sufficient for DNA fragmentation induced by protein extracts from rat brain cortex. We found that endonuclease activity induced in rat brain cortex following TBI depends on the presence of Mg2+ and Ca2+, but is not inhibited by Zn2+. Primary neuronal cultures from DFF45 knockouts failed to show DNA laddering in response to staurosporine, but did show prominent, albeit delayed, DNA fragmentation following treatment with etoposide. In contrast, primary neurons from wild-type animals demonstrated marked DNA fragmentation following treatment with staurosporine or etoposide. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study suggest that, in addition to DFF45/40, other endonucleases may be essential for chromatin degradation during neuronal apoptosis in adult brain after TBI.

Chronic toxicity/oncogenicity study of styrene in CD-1 mice by inhalation exposure for 104 weeks.

Groups of 70 male and 70 female Charles River CD-1 mice were exposed whole body to styrene vapor at 0, 20, 40, 80 or 160 ppm 6 h per day 5 days per week for 98 weeks (females) or 104 weeks (males). The mice were observed daily; body weights, food and water consumption were measured periodically, a battery of hematological and clinical pathology examinations were conducted at weeks 13, 26, 52, 78 and 98 (females)/104 (males). Ten mice of each gender per group were pre-selected for necropsy after 52 and 78 weeks of exposure and the survivors of the remaining 50 of each gender per group were necropsied after 98 or 104 weeks. An extensive set of organs from the control and high-exposure mice were examined histopathologically, whereas target organs, gross lesions and all masses were examined in all other groups. Styrene had no effect on survival in males. Two high-dose females died (acute liver toxicity) during the first 2 weeks; the remaining exposed females had a slightly higher survival than control mice. Levels of styrene and styrene oxide (SO) in the blood at the end of a 6 h exposure during week 74 were proportional to exposure concentration, except that at 20 ppm the SO level was below the limit of detection. There were no changes of toxicological significance in hematology, clinical chemistry, urinalysis or organ weights. Mice exposed to 80 or 160 ppm gained slightly less weight than the controls. Styrene-related non-neoplastic histopathological changes were found only in the nasal passages and lungs. In the nasal passages of males and females at all exposure concentrations, the changes included respiratory metaplasia of the olfactory epithelium with changes in the underlying Bowman's gland; the severity increased with styrene concentration and duration of exposure. Loss of olfactory nerve fibers was seen in mice exposed to 40, 80 or 160 ppm. In the lungs, there was decreased eosinophilia of Clara cells in the terminal bronchioles and bronchiolar epithelial hyperplasia extending into alveolar ducts. Increased tumor incidence occurred only in the lung. The incidence of bronchioloalveolar adenomas was significantly increased in males exposed to 40, 80 or 160 ppm and in females exposed to 20, 40 and 160 ppm. The increase was seen only after 24 months. In females exposed to 160 ppm, the incidence of bronchiolo-alveolar carcinomas after 24 months was significantly greater than in the controls. No difference in lung tumors between control and styrene-exposed mice was seen in the intensity or degree of immunostaining, the location of tumors relative to bronchioles or histological type (papillary, solid or mixed). It appears that styrene induces an increase in the number of lung tumors seen spontaneously in CD-1 mice.

Ischaemic preconditioning in the rat brain: a longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) study.

Ischaemic preconditioning in rats was studied using MRI. Ischaemic preconditioning was induced, using an intraluminal filament method, by 30 min middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO), and imaged 24 h later. The secondary insult of 100 min MCAO was induced 3 days following preconditioning and imaged 24 and 72 h later. Twenty-four hours following ischaemic preconditioning most rats showed small sub-cortical hyperintense regions not seen in sham-preconditioned rats. Twenty-four hours and 72 h following the secondary insult preconditioned animals showed significantly smaller lesions (24 h = 112 +/- 31 mm(3), mean +/- standard error; 72 h = 80 +/- 35 mm(3)), which were confined to the striatum, than controls (24 h = 234 +/- 32 mm(3), p = 0.026; 72 h = 275 +/- 37 mm(3), p = 0.003). In addition during lesion maturation from 24 to 72 h post-secondary MCAO, preconditioned rats displayed an average reduction in lesion size as measured by MRI whereas sham-preconditioned rats displayed increases in lesion size; this is the first report of such differential lesion volume evolution in cerebral ischaemic preconditioning.

Selective blockade of the mGluR1 receptor reduces traumatic neuronal injury in vitro and improvesoOutcome after brain trauma.

The effects of selective blockade of group I metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 1 (mGluR1) on neuronal cell survival and post-traumatic recovery was examined using rat in vitro and in vivo trauma models. The selective mGluR1 antagonists (RS)-1-aminoindan-1,5-dicarboxylic acid (AIDA), 7-(hydroxyimino)cyclopropa[b]chromen-1a-carboxylate ethyl ester (CPCCOEt), and (S)-(+)-alpha-amino-4-carboxy-2-methylbezeneacetic acid (LY367385) provided significant neuroprotection in rat cortical neuronal cultures subjected to mechanical injury, in both pretreatment or posttreatment paradigms. Administration of the antagonists also attenuated glutamate-induced neuronal cell death in the cultures. Coapplication of these antagonists with the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist (5R,10S)-(+)-5-methyl-10,11-dihydro-5H-dibenzo[a,d]cyclohepten-5,10-imine (MK-801) had additive neuroprotective effects in glutamate injured cultures. Intracerebroventricular administration of AIDA to rats markedly improved recovery from motor dysfunction after lateral fluid percussion induced traumatic brain injury (TBI). Treatment with mGluR1 antagonists also significantly reduced lesion volumes in rats after TBI, as evaluated by MRI. It appears that these compounds mediate their neuroprotective effect through an mGluR1 antagonist action, as demonstrated by inhibition of agonist induced phosphoinositide hydrolysis in our in vitro system. Moreover, AIDA, CPCCOEt, and LY367385, at concentrations shown to be neuroprotective, had no significant effects on the steady state NMDA evoked whole cell current. Taken together, these data suggest that modulation of mGluR1 activity may have substantial therapeutic potential in brain injury.

mGluR5 antagonists 2-methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)-pyridine and (E)-2-methyl-6-(2-phenylethenyl)-pyridine reduce traumatic neuronal injury in vitro and in vivo by antagonizing N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors.

The effect of selective group I metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 5 (mGluR5) antagonists 2-methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)-pyridine (MPEP) and (E)-2-methyl-6-(2-phenylethenyl)-pyridine (SIB-1893) on neuronal cell survival and post-traumatic recovery was examined using rat in vitro and in vivo trauma models. Treatment with MPEP and SIB-1893 showed significant neuroprotective effects in rat cortical neuronal cultures subjected to mechanical injury. Application of the antagonists also attenuated glutamate- and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-induced neuronal cell death in vitro. Intracerebroventricular administration of MPEP to rats markedly improved motor recovery and reduced deficits of spatial learning after lateral fluid percussion-induced traumatic brain injury. Lesion volumes as assessed by magnetic resonance imaging were also substantially reduced by MPEP treatment. Although we show that MPEP acts as a potent mGluR5 antagonist in our culture system, where it completely blocks agonist-induced phosphoinositide hydrolysis, electrophysiological and pharmacological studies indicate that MPEP and SIB-1893 also inhibit NMDA receptor activity at higher concentrations that are neuroprotective. Taken together, these data suggest that MPEP and SIB-1893 may have therapeutic potential in brain injury, although the mechanisms of neuroprotective action for these drugs may reflect their ability to modulate NMDA receptor activity.