Multigene DNA priming-boosting vaccines protect macaques from acute CD4+-T-cell depletion after simian-human immunodeficiency virus SHIV89.6P mucosal challenge.

We evaluated four priming-boosting vaccine regimens for the highly pathogenic simian human immunodeficiency virus SHIV89.6P in Macaca nemestrina. Each regimen included gene gun delivery of a DNA vaccine expressing all SHIV89.6 genes plus Env gp160 of SHIV89.6P. Additional components were two recombinant vaccinia viruses, expressing SHIV89.6 Gag-Pol or Env gp160, and inactivated SHIV89.6 virus. We compared (i) DNA priming/DNA boosting, (ii) DNA priming/inactivated virus boosting, (iii) DNA priming/vaccinia virus boosting, and (iv) vaccinia virus priming/DNA boosting versus sham vaccines in groups of 6 macaques. Prechallenge antibody responses to Env and Gag were strongest in the groups that received vaccinia virus priming or boosting. Cellular immunity to SHIV89.6 peptides was measured by enzyme-linked immunospot assay; strong responses to Gag and Env were found in 9 of 12 vaccinia virus vaccinees and 1 of 6 DNA-primed/inactivated-virus-boosted animals. Vaccinated macaques were challenged intrarectally with 50 50% animal infectious doses of SHIV89.6P 3 weeks after the last immunization. All animals became infected. Five of six DNA-vaccinated and 5 of 6 DNA-primed/particle-boosted animals, as well as all 6 controls, experienced severe CD4(+)-T-cell loss in the first 3 weeks after infection. In contrast, DNA priming/vaccinia virus boosting and vaccinia virus priming/DNA boosting vaccines both protected animals from disease: 11 of 12 macaques had no loss of CD4(+) T cells or moderate declines. Virus loads in plasma at the set point were significantly lower in vaccinia virus-primed/DNA-boosted animals versus controls (P = 0.03). We conclude that multigene vaccines delivered by a combination of vaccinia virus and gene gun-delivered DNA were effective against SHIV89.6P viral challenge in M. nemestrina.

Antigen-specific cytokine responses in vaccinated Macaca nemestrina.

We describe a new surrogate assay for CD8 + T lymphocyte activity that has the capability of discriminating between cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) activity and cytokine-mediated suppressive activity. We applied this approach to two groups of Macaca nemestrina vaccinated with a minimally pathogenic strain of human immunodeficiency virus type 2 [HIV-2 (HIV-2(KR))] as a model of an attenuated virus vaccine. Group 1 was then inoculated with a non-infectious stock of a pathogenic strain, HIV-2287. Both groups 1 and 2 were subsequently challenged with an infectious stock of HIV-2287. Five out of six group 1 animals were protected against CD4 decline, whereas three out of six animals in group 2 were protected. Analysis of CTL responses demonstrated strong activity against HIV-2(KR)-Gag in group 1. It was determined that strong CTL responses correlate with antigen-specific T-helper (Th) type 1 responses. This antigen-specific cytokine assay has the potential to better elucidate the functional mechanisms of CD8 + T-cell-mediated protection than traditional methods to date.

Differential role for p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase in regulating CD40-induced gene expression in dendritic cells and B cells.

We investigated whether human monocyte-derived dendritic cells (DCs) differed from tonsillar B cells in the set of cell fate genes they express constitutively and in the way these genes are affected after CD40 ligation. In particular, Bcl-2, TNF receptor-associated factor-2 (TRAF2), and TRAF4 were clearly inducible via CD40 in B cells but not in DCs. DCs, unlike B cells, were induced to increase expression of IL-1beta, IL-1Ra, IL-8, IL-12 p40, RANTES, macrophage inflammatory protein-1alpha, and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 after CD40 ligation. We next tested whether CD40-induced signaling pathways were different in DCs vs B cells. In DCs, as in B cells, CD40 ligation activated p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), its downstream target, MAPKAPK-2, and the c-Jun N-terminal kinase. The p38 MAPK-specific inhibitor, SB203580, blocked CD40-induced MAPKAPK-2 activation, but did not affect activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase. Furthermore, unlike in B cells, extracellular signal-regulated kinase-1 and -2 were activated after CD40 ligation in DCs. SB203580 strongly blocked CD40-induced IL-12 p40 production in DCs at both mRNA and protein levels, while having minimal effect on CD40-induced expression of the chemokine RANTES. In contrast, no detectable IL-12 p40 protein was secreted in CD40-stimulated B cells. Furthermore, CD40-induced mRNA expression of cellular inhibitor of apoptosis protein-2 was also dependent on the p38 MAPK pathway in DCs and differed compared with that in B cells. In conclusion, CD40 induces distinct programs in DCs and B cells, and the set of p38 MAPK-dependent genes in DCs (IL-12 p40 and cellular inhibitor of apoptosis protein-2) is different from that in B cells (IL-10 and IL-1beta).

Natural history of SIVmac BK28 and H824 infection in Macaca nemestrina.

The natural histories of disease progression induced by two closely related molecular clones of SIVmac were evaluated to determine the utility of these viruses for modeling fast and slow progression to AIDS in Macaca nemestrina. Viral and immune parameters were measured to determine differential progression. Survival time, viral load and CD4+ T cell decline all were indicative of distinct rates of progression, while early measurements of interferon-gamma (IFNgamma) producing cells did not indicate significant differences.

In vivo cytokine production in murine listeriosis. Evidence for immunoregulation by gamma delta+ T cells.

Differential cytokine production by gamma delta+ T cells influences Th1 and Th2 responses. Here, we describe the in vivo kinetics of peritoneal and splenic gamma delta+, CD4+, and CD8+ T cell cytokine responses during primary and secondary Listeria infections. The data show differences in the kinetics of IFN-gamma-producing alpha beta+ splenocytes consistent with immunologic memory. Most noteworthy, however, was the elevated production of IL-10 by splenic gamma delta+ T cells in the red pulp and marginal zones that coincided with maximal IFN-gamma production and with a decrease in inflammation and tissue damage. This result implies a role for gamma delta+ T cells in the control of Th1 responses.

Differential production of interferon-gamma and interleukin-4 in response to Th1- and Th2-stimulating pathogens by gamma delta T cells in vivo.

Exposure to various pathogens can stimulate at least two patterns of cytokine production by CD4-positive T cells. Responses that result in secretion of interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma), lymphotoxin and interleukin-2 (IL-2) are classified as T-helper-1 (Th1); CD4+ T-cell production of IL-4, IL-5, IL-9, IL-10 and IL-13 is called a T-helper-2 response (Th2). Differentiation of CD4+ T cells into either Th1 or Th2 cells is influenced by the cytokine milieu in which the initial antigen priming occurs. Here we use flow cytometry to identify the presence of intracellular cytokines (cytoflow) and analyse T-cell production of IFN-gamma and IL-4 from mice infected with Listeria monocytogenes or Nippostrongylus brasiliensis. We show that T cells bearing gamma delta receptors discriminate early in infection between these two pathogens by producing cytokines associated with the appropriate T-helper response. Our results demonstrate that gamma delta T cells are involved in establishing primary immune responses.

Tolerance and self-reactivity in V gamma 1.1C gamma 4 transgenic mice.

Immunological tolerance is the process of inhibiting or eliminating lymphocytes that recognize self-derived antigens. By removing potentially harmful self-reactive clones, this mechanism allows for the random generation of a diverse repertoire of T-cells capable of responding to foreign pathogens. Although all self-reactive T-cells should be removed from the repertoire, it is quite clear from many recent studies that a significant fraction of T-cells bearing gamma delta T-cell receptors (TCR) recognize self-derived antigens in normal healthy mice. The presence of self-reactive T-cells in healthy animals presents a paradox which may be explained by understanding the transient expression of the antigens (e.g., MHC class Ib, Heat Shock Proteins) that have been identified for gamma delta T-cells thus far. Data from experiments with V gamma 1.1C gamma 4 transgenic mice demonstrating the presence of self-reactive gamma delta T-cells and their influence on lymphoid development and immune surveillance will be examined in this review.