The cost of medical care for patients with diabetes, hypertension and both conditions: does alcohol use play a role?

OBJECTIVE: To estimate and compare the medical costs of individuals with diabetes and/or hypertension relative to a matched sample of individuals with neither condition, and determine if these costs are significantly influenced by alcohol use. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Data were obtained from a sample of 799 patients from eight primary care clinics in south-central Wisconsin between 2001 and 2002. Medical care costs were calculated within four categories [hospital and emergency room (ER) costs, clinic costs, medication costs and total cost] for three chronic disease samples [diabetes only (n = 89), hypertension only (n = 299), and both diabetes and hypertension (n = 209)] as well as a matched sample with neither diabetes nor hypertension (n = 202). Annual medical care costs were estimated using a combination of insurance billing records, self-reported information and chart review. All cost data pertain to a 12-month period in 2001-2002. In addition to a descriptive analysis of costs across medical service categories and samples, we also conducted multivariate analyses of total cost, controlling for patient demographics, education, employment, smoking, and comorbidities, such as heart disease, hyperlipidaemia, liver disease, chronic back pain, asthma, depression, anxiety and bronchitis. RESULTS: The estimated differential in total annual medical cost (relative to the control group) was USD 2183 for diabetes only, USD 724 for hypertension only and USD 3402 for diabetes and hypertension. Alcohol use did not significantly impact medical care costs amongst individuals with diabetes and/or hypertension. CONCLUSIONS: These cost estimates can serve as an important and useful reference source for doctors, insurance companies, health maintenance organizations (HMOs) and policy makers as they try to anticipate the future medical care needs and associated costs for diabetic and hypertensive patients.

Opioids and the treatment of chronic pain in a primary care sample.

Chronic pain is a widespread, difficult problem facing clinicians. This study assessed the current medical management of a general population of patients with chronic pain in 12 family medicine practices located throughout the state of Wisconsin. Medical record audits were conducted on a sample of 209 adults. Sixty-seven percent were female with an average age of 53 years. The most common pain diagnoses included lumbar/low back (44%), joint disease/arthritis (33%), and headache/migraine (28%) pain. The most frequently prescribed opioids were oxycodone/acetaminophen (31%), morphine ERT (19%), Tylenol #3 (15%), and hydrocodone/acetaminophen (14%). Depression/affective disorders were reported in 36% of the patient charts, anxiety/panic disorders (15%), drug abuse (6%), and alcohol abuse (3%). Written drug contracts were utilized by 42% (n = 31) of the practitioners, pain scales 25% (n = 29), and urine toxicology screens 8% (n = 6). This study suggests that primary care practitioners have unique opportunities to identify and successfully treat patients with chronic pain.

Improving residents' breastfeeding assessment skills: a problem-based workshop.

BACKGROUND: It is well documented that residents have limited knowledge about common breastfeeding problems. OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to assess whether a problem-based, interactive breastfeeding workshop would improve resident skill level. METHODS: Two groups of second- and third-year family medicine residents were assigned to an intervention or control group; both groups participated in pre-and post-intervention Objective Structured Clinical Examinations (OSCEs) and completed written questionnaires. The intervention consisted of a 4.5 hour interactive workshop with didactic presentations and opportunities to work with a lactation consultant and standardized patients trained to role-play selected breastfeeding problems. RESULTS: There were no baseline differences in knowledge or performance scores on the OSCEs between the intervention and control groups. OSCE scores after intervention were significantly better in the intervention group for the content areas assessing position and latch and the evaluation of sore nipples (P < 0.001 and P = 0.05, respectively). There was a trend towards improvement in assessment of the problem of low milk supply (P = 0.31). All residents in the intervention group correctly diagnosed the cause of both the sore nipples and low milk supply at the follow-up OSCE, with P values of <0.001 and 0.068, respectively. The intervention group felt significantly more confident in their breastfeeding problem-solving (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: An interactive, problem-based workshop to teach residents the basics of breastfeeding problem solving can be implemented in residency and improve clinical diagnostic skills and residents' comfort with breastfeeding.

Osteoporosis prevention counseling during health maintenance examinations.

OBJECTIVE: Our goal was to determine how often primary care providers discussed osteoporosis prevention and calcium intake with women during their health maintenance examinations. METHODS: A total of 449 women aged 18 to 65 years participated in exit interviews immediately following a health maintenance examination at 1 of 8 Wisconsin family practice clinics. RESULTS: Forty-six percent of these women reported discussing osteoporosis with their providers during their visit, and 51% reported discussing calcium intake. A total of 61% reported discussing either osteoporosis or calcium intake during the visit. Some providers were able to discuss these topics with more than 90% of their patients. A logistic regression model showed that providers were less likely to discuss either of these issues with women younger than 40 years (P=.019); they were more likely to discuss them with women older than 60 years (P=.002) than with women aged 40 to 60 years; and women providers were significantly more likely to discuss either issue (P=.004). CONCLUSIONS: Primary care providers are in a good position to counsel women of all ages about their potential for avoiding osteoporosis and to recommend prevention strategies. The United States Preventive Services Task Force recommends that all women be counseled on adequate calcium intake yearly after the age of 18 years. Provider education and institutional changes may increase the frequency of this counseling for all primary care physicians.

Treatment of problem alcohol use in women of childbearing age: results of a brief intervention trial.

BACKGROUND: Studies suggest that 14% of women age 18 to 40 drink alcohol above recommended limits. Of special concern is the increasing use of alcohol by women during pregnancy. This article reports 48 month follow-up data from a subanalysis of a trial for early alcohol treatment (Project TrEAT) focused on women of childbearing age. METHODS: Project TrEAT was conducted in the offices of 64 primary care, community-based physicians from 10 Wisconsin counties. Of 5979 female patients ages 18 to 40 who were screened for problem drinking, 205 were randomized into an experimental group (n = 103) or control group (n = 102). The intervention consisted of two 15 min, physician-delivered counseling visits that included advice, education, and contracting by using a scripted workbook. A total of 174 subjects (85%) completed the 48 month follow-up procedures. RESULTS: No significant differences were found between the experimental and control groups at baseline for alcohol use, age, socioeconomic status, smoking, depression or anxiety, conduct disorder, lifetime drug use, or health care utilization. The trial found a significant treatment effect in reducing both 7 day alcohol use (p = 0.0039) and binge drinking episodes (p = 0.0021) over the 48 month follow-up period. Women in the experimental group who became pregnant during the follow-up period had the most dramatic decreases in alcohol use. A logistic regression model based on a 20% or greater reduction in drinking found an odds ratio of 1.93 (confidence interval 1.07-3.46) in the sample exposed to physician intervention. Age, smoking, depression, conduct disorder, antisocial personality disorder, and illicit drug use did not reduce drinking significantly. No significant differences were found in health care utilization and health status between groups. CONCLUSIONS: This trial provides the first direct evidence that brief intervention is associated with sustained reductions in alcohol consumption by women of childbearing age. The results have enormous implications for the U.S. health care system.

Benefit-cost analysis of brief physician advice with problem drinkers in primary care settings.

BACKGROUND: Few studies have estimated the economic costs and benefits of brief physician advice in managed care settings. OBJECTIVE: To conduct a benefit-cost analysis of brief physician advice regarding problem drinking. DESIGN: Patient and health care costs associated with brief advice were compared with economic benefits associated with changes in health care utilization, legal events, and motor vehicle accidents using 6- and 12-month follow-up data from Project TrEAT (Trial for Early Alcohol Treatment), a randomized controlled clinical trial. SUBJECTS: 482 men and 292 women who reported drinking above a threshold limit were randomized into control (n = 382) or intervention (n = 392) groups. MEASURES: Outcomes included alcohol use, emergency department visits, hospital days, legal events, and motor vehicle accidents. RESULTS: No significant differences between control and intervention subjects were present for baseline alcohol use, age, socioeconomic status, smoking, depression or anxiety, conduct disorders, drug use, crimes, motor vehicle accidents, or health care utilization. The total economic benefit of the brief intervention was $423,519 (95% CI: $35,947, $884,848), composed of $195,448 (95% CI: $36,734, $389,160) in savings in emergency department and hospital use and $228,071 (95% CI: -$191,419, $757,303) in avoided costs of crime and motor vehicle accidents. The average (per subject) benefit was $1,151 (95% CI: $92, $2,257). The estimated total economic cost of the intervention was $80,210, or $205 per subject. The benefit-cost ratio was 5.6:1 (95% CI: 0.4, 11.0), or $56,263 in total benefit for every $10,000 invested. CONCLUSIONS: These results offer the first quantitative evidence that implementation of a brief intervention for problem drinkers can generate positive net benefit for patients, the health care system, and society.