Biomarkers in Chronic Kidney Disease / Biomarcadores en enfermedad renal crónica

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is an important public health problem. The classification of CKD by KDOQI and KDIGO and routine reports of the estimation of the glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), have resulted in a higher frequency in the diagnosis of CKD. Identification of CKD subjects and high risk of disease progression and cardiovascular disease (CVD) development is important. In clinical practice, proteinuria is the most sensitive marker of the progression of CKD, especially when combined with eGFR, but these have limitations. Therefore, the use of other early and sensitive biomarkers is required. Promising biomarkers are now being identified for the detection of CKD progression and its associated CVD morbidity and mortality. These are sensitive biomarkers of renal function, underlying pathophysiological processes and/or cardiovascular risk.

La enfermedad renal crónica (ERC) es un importante problema de salud pública. La clasificación de la ERC por KDOQI y KDIGO, y los informes rutinarios de la estimación de la tasa de filtración glomerular (eTFG), han dado lugar a una mayor frecuencia en el diagnóstico de ERC. Es importante la identificación de los pacientes con ERC y alto riesgo de progresión de la enfermedad y del desarrollo de enfermedad cardiovascular (ECV). En la práctica clínica, la proteinuria es el marcador más sensible de la progresión de la ERC, especialmente cuando se combina con eTFG, pero, aun con ello, tienen limitaciones. Por lo tanto, se requiere del uso de otros biomarcadores tempranos y sensibles. Actualmente se tienen identificados biomarcadores prometedores para la detección de la progresión de la ERC y de su morbilidad y mortalidad por ECV asociada. Estos son biomarcadores sensibles de la función renal, de los procesos fisiopatológicos subyacentes y/o del riesgo cardiovascular.

[Factors related to residual renal function loss in patients in peritoneal dialysis]. / Factores relacionados con pérdida de la función renal residual en pacientes en diálisis peritoneal.

BACKGROUND: Residual renal function (RRF) contributes to the quality of life of patients on dialysis. The preservation of RRF is associated with higher patient survival in peritoneal dialysis (PD), and is now accepted that RRF and peritoneal clearance are not of equal value in patient survival. The aim of this study is to know the factors related to RRF loss in prevalent patients in continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD). METHODS: This is an analysis of secondary outcomes. Forty-three adult patients with type 2 diabetes were included. They had RRF preserved. Clinical and laboratory assessments were done in each visit during a year. RESULTS: The male gender (p = 0.042), systolic (p = 0.009) and diastolic (p = 0.006) blood pressure (BP), hemoglobin (p = 0.008), peritoneal creatinine clearance (p = 0.014), peritoneal ultrafiltration (p = 0.017) and levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) in plasma (p = 0.022) and dialysate (p = 0.008) were related with RRF loss. CONCLUSIONS: It is important to understand the factors associated with RRF loss in our patients to prevent the gradual loss and its implications on the mortality and quality of life.

Introducción: la conservación de la función renal residual (FRR) en los pacientes en diálisis peritoneal (DP) tiene una clara influencia sobre la calidad de vida, independientemente de que su preservación ha demostrado influir en la mayor supervivencia de los pacientes. El objetivo del presente estudio fue conocer los factores relacionados con pérdida de la FRR en un grupo de pacientes prevalentes en diálisis peritoneal continua ambulatoria (DPCA). Métodos: se trata de un estudio de análisis de resultados secundarios. Se incluyeron 43 adultos con diabetes tipo 2 (DT2), con FRR conservada, a quienes se les dio seguimiento durante un año. Resultados: los factores relacionados con la pérdida de la FRR fueron: género masculino (p = 0.042), presión arterial sistólica (p = 0.009) y diastólica (p = 0.006), hemoglobina (p = 0.008), aclaramiento peritoneal de creatinina (p = 0.014), ultrafiltración (p = 0.017), niveles de factor de necrosis tumoral alfa (FNT­alfa) en plasma (p = 0.022) y dializado (p = 0.008). Conclusiones: es importante conocer los factores relacionados con pérdida de la FRR en nuestros pacientes para evitar la pérdida gradual de la misma y sus implicaciones sobre la mortalidad y calidad de vida.

Oral supplementation with glycine reduces oxidative stress in patients with metabolic syndrome, improving their systolic blood pressure.

Reactive oxygen species derived from abdominal fat and uncontrolled glucose metabolism are contributing factors to both oxidative stress and the development of metabolic syndrome (MetS). This study was designed to evaluate the effects of daily administration of an oral glycine supplement on antioxidant enzymes and lipid peroxidation in MetS patients. The study included 60 volunteers: 30 individuals that were supplemented with glycine (15 g/day) and 30 that were given a placebo for 3 months. We analysed thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and S-nitrosohemoglobin (SNO-Hb) in plasma; the enzymatic activities of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPX) in erythrocytes; and the expression of CAT, GPX, and SOD2 in leukocytes. Individuals treated with glycine showed a 25% decrease in TBARS compared with the placebo-treated group. Furthermore, there was a 20% reduction in SOD-specific activity in the glycine-treated group, which correlated with SOD2 expression. G6PD activity and SNO-Hb levels increased in the glycine-treated male group. Systolic blood pressure (SBP) also showed a significant decrease in the glycine-treated men (p = 0.043). Glycine plays an important role in balancing the redox reactions in the human body, thus protecting against oxidative damage in MetS patients.

[Impaired fasting glucose detection in blood donors population]. / Detección de glucosa en ayuno alterada en donadores de sangre.

OBJECTIVE: to identify subjects with impaired fasting glucose (IFG), from a group of apparently healthy individuals. METHODS: a cross-sectional study was undertaken in 1188 blood donors, with no family history of diabetes (T2D). All these individuals were subjected to a questionnaire, and biochemical tests. RESULTS: the prevalence of IFG was 15.9 %, 17.1 % in men and 12.9 % in women. The average blood glucose levels in subjects with IFG were 107.2 + or - 6.5 mg/dL in men and 106.0 + or - 6.1 mg/dL in women. Sixty percent of individuals with IFG showed insulin resistance. The diagnosis of metabolic syndrome (MS) in IFG subjects was 20.2 %, according to the NCEP/ATP III criteria, 21.4 % according to the International Diabetes Federation criteria; and 29.3 % according to the American Heart Association and the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute criteria. Seventy percent of the subjects with IFG showed hypertriglyceridemia, 51 % showed hypercholesterolemia and 85 % were over-weight or obese. CONCLUSIONS: the prevalence of IFG was higher than expected, comparing with other populations reported in the literature. These apparently healthy subjects were not previously diagnosed and therefore have not received preventive actions to arrest the risk of T2D.

[Dyslipidemia prevalence and its relationship with insulin resistance in a population of apparently healthy subjects]. / Prevalencia de dislipidemias en una población de sujetos en apariencia sanos y su relación con la resistencia a la insulina.

OBJECTIVE: Evaluate dyslipidemia prevalence and its association with insulin resistance in a cohort of apparently healthy subjects. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted with 1,179 donors ages 35 to 65 years. The sample population was comprised of 71% men, with an average age of 44 +/- 7. Clinical records, anthropometric data, lipid profile, fasting glycaemia, and insulin levels were obtained. RESULTS: Prevalence of hypertriglyceridemia was 57.3%, C-HDL under normal limits was 52.4%, and hypercholesterolemia was 48.7%. In addition, 36.8% of the obese individuals (as measured by waist perimeter) had hypertriglyceridemia/hypoalphalipoproteinemia, 35.2% had mixed dyslipidemia, and 33.4% had hypertriglyceridemia. Patterns of dyslipidemia were higher in subjects diagnosed with insulin resistance. CONCLUSIONS: Insulin resistance associated with hypertriglyceridemia and hypoalphalipoproteinemia was common among our studied population. However, a significant proportion of cases of apparent healthy individuals continue to go undiagnosed.

Prevalencia de dislipidemias en una población de sujetos en apariencia sanos y su relación con la resistencia a la insulina / Dyslipidemia prevalence and its relationship with insulin resistance on a population of apparently healthy subjects

OBJETIVO: Conocer la prevalencia de las dislipidemias en una población de sujetos en apariencia sanos y su relación con la resistencia a la insulina (RI). MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Este es un estudio transversal que incluyó a 1 179 individuos, donadores voluntarios de 35 a 65 años. Se obtuvo el historial clínico y se realizaron examen físico, determinación del perfil de lípidos, glucemia y niveles de insulina en ayuno. RESULTADOS: La edad promedio fue de 44 ± 7 años; 836 (71 por ciento) correspondían al género masculino. La prevalencia de hipertrigliceridemia fue de 57.3 por ciento, hipoalfalipoproteinemia de 52.4 por ciento e hipercolesterolemia de 48.7 por ciento. De los sujetos con obesidad (perímetro de cintura aumentado), 36.8 por ciento tenía hipertrigliceridemia/hipoalfalipoproteinemia, 35.2 por ciento dislipidemia mixta y 33.4 por ciento hipertrigliceridemia. La prevalencia de los patrones de dislipidemias fue mayor en sujetos con RI. CONCLUSIONES: La hipertrigliceridemia e hipoalfalipoproteinemia, vinculadas con RI, son comunes en la población mexicana; empero, una considerable proporción de casos carece de diagnóstico.

OBJECTIVE: Evaluate dyslipidemia prevalence and its association with insulin resistance in a cohort of apparently healthy subjects. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted with 1 179 donors ages 35 to 65 years. The sample population was comprised of 71 percent men, with an average age of 44 ± 7. Clinical records, anthropometric data, lipid profile, fasting glycaemia, and insulin levels were obtained. RESULTS: Prevalence of hypertriglyceridemia was 57.3 percent, C-HDL under normal limits was 52.4 percent, and hypercholesterolemia was 48.7 percent. In addition, 36.8 percent of the obese individuals (as measured by waist perimeter) had hypertriglyceridemia/hypoalphalipoproteinemia, 35.2 percent had mixed dyslipidemia, and 33.4 percent had hypertriglyceridemia. Patterns of dyslipidemia were higher in subjects diagnosed with insulin resistance. CONCLUSIONS: Insulin resistance associated with hypertriglyceridemia and hypoalphalipoproteinemia was common among our studied population. However, a significant proportion of cases of apparent healthy individuals continue to go undiagnosed.

Waist perimeter cutoff points and prediction of metabolic syndrome risk. A study in a Mexican population.

BACKGROUND: Association between metabolic syndrome (MS) risk factors was analyzed to establish optimum waist perimeter (WP) cutoff points for a Latin American cluster. METHODS: There were 1036 clinically healthy Mexican subjects without a history of CVD. Their full medical history and anthropometric and biochemical parameters were analyzed. Diagnosis of MS was classified by both the International Diabetes Federation (IDF) and the American Heart Association (AHA-NHLBI) definitions. The optimum WP cutoff point was defined through one-way ANOVA, homogeneity and chi(2) test of dependency, and receiver operator characteristic analysis (ROC). RESULTS: WP cutoff points suggested by the IDF (> or =90 cm in men, > or =80 cm in women) and AHA-NHLBI (> or =102 cm in men, > or =88 cm in women) showed a weak association with the other MS risk factors. By using the cutoff point of > or =98 cm for men and > or =84 cm for women, we obtained maximum sensitivity and specificity values by ROC analysis. These cutoff points defined as the Mexican Waist Perimeter Proposal (MxWPP) significantly change the prevalence of MS in contrast with the IDF and AHA-NHLBI. CONCLUSIONS: Applying the MxWPP new criteria enhances the capability to more accurately detect subjects with MS risk in an apparent healthy Latin American cluster.

[Depressive symptoms as a risk factor for polypharmacy in patients over 60 years of age]. / Síntomas depresivos como factor de riesgo para polifarmacia en pacientes mayores de 60 años.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the association between depressive symptoms not identified by the family physician and polypharmacy in patients over 60 years old. METHODS: A case-control design with non-probabilistic sampling. INCLUSION CRITERIA: > or = 60 years old both sexes, without disease or with one disease-balanced illness, and with reliable recording in chart by the last 12 month. EXCLUSION CRITERIA: cognitive deterioration, obstructive chronic lung disease, cardiopathy, infarct record, alcoholism, smoking addiction and functional dependence's. Elimination criteria: depression's previous diagnoses and hospitalization during a year before the study. The cases were patients who have simultaneously received 4 o more pharmacologic prescriptions in 5 of 6 last medical visits. The controls were patients who have simultaneously received 3 o less pharmacologic prescriptions in 5 of 6 last medical visits. Depressive symptoms: grading > or = 6 (Yesavage and Brink scale). RESULTS: 200 patients per group, aged 69 +/- 6 years agreed to participate. Logistics regression (OR;CI(95%)): hypertension (6.0;3.6-10.3), diabetes mellitus type 2 (3.7;2.3-5.9), depression (2.1;1.2-3.4), and female sex (1.7;1.1-2.7). CONCLUSIONS: Hypertension, diabetes mellitus type 2, depressive symptoms not identified by the family physician, and female sex are risk factors for polypharmacy in the elderly.

Síntomas depresivos como factor de riesgo para polifarmacia en pacientes mayores de 60 años / Depressive symptoms as a risk factor for polypharmacy in patients over 60 years of age

Objetivo: Determinar la asociación entre los síntomas depresivos no identificados por el médico de atención primaria y la polifarmacia en pacientes mayores de 60 años. Material y métodos: Se diseñó un estudio de casos y controles con muestreo no probabilístico de casos consecutivos. Los criterios de inclusión fueron: pacientes de ambos sexos con 60 o más años de edad, con un máximo de una enfermedad, sin descompensaciones agudas, con registros confiables en sus expedientes durante los últimos 12 meses. Los criterios de exclusión fueron: deterioro cognitivo, artritis reumatoide, endocrinopatías (excepto diabetes mellitus), alcoholismo, tabaquismo, dependencia funcional, antecedentes de automedicación. Los criterios de eliminación fueron: diagnóstico previo de depresión o síntomas depresivos y hospitalización en los últimos 12 meses. Se seleccionaron como casos pacientes a quienes, por lo menos, en 5 de las 6 últimas consultas recibidas, se hayan prescrito 4 o más fármacos en forma simultánea. Se incluyeron en el grupo de los controles pacientes los a quienes al menos en 5 de las 6 últimas consultas recibidas, se haya prescrito un máximo de 3 fármacos en forma simultánea. Resultados: Participaron 200 pacientes por grupo, con edad promedio de 69 ± 6 años con los siguientes resultados: regresión logística (RM; IC95%) hipertensión arterial (6.0;3.6-10.3), diabetes mellitus 2 (3.7;2.3-5.9), síntomas depresivos (2.1;1.2-3.4), sexo femenino (1.7;1.1-2.7). Conclusiones: La presencia de hipertensión arterial, diabetes mellitus, síntomas depresivos no identificados por el médico y el sexo femenino favorecen la presencia de polifarmacia en el adulto mayor que acude a una unidad de medicina familiar.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the association between depressive symptoms not identified by the family physician and polypharmacy in patients over 60 years old. METHODS: A case-control design with non-probabilistic sampling. Inclusion criteria: > or = 60 years old both sexes, without disease or with one disease-balanced illness, and with reliable recording in chart by the last 12 month. Exclusion criteria: cognitive deterioration, obstructive chronic lung disease, cardiopathy, infarct record, alcoholism, smoking addiction and functional dependence's. Elimination criteria: depression's previous diagnoses and hospitalization during a year before the study. The cases were patients who have simultaneously received 4 o more pharmacologic prescriptions in 5 of 6 last medical visits. The controls were patients who have simultaneously received 3 o less pharmacologic prescriptions in 5 of 6 last medical visits. Depressive symptoms: grading > or = 6 (Yesavage and Brink scale). RESULTS: 200 patients per group, aged 69 +/- 6 years agreed to participate. Logistics regression (OR;CI(95%)): hypertension (6.0;3.6-10.3), diabetes mellitus type 2 (3.7;2.3-5.9), depression (2.1;1.2-3.4), and female sex (1.7;1.1-2.7). CONCLUSIONS: Hypertension, diabetes mellitus type 2, depressive symptoms not identified by the family physician, and female sex are risk factors for polypharmacy in the elderly.

[Differences of risk factors for peripheral arterial disease in type 2 diabetes patients in urban and suburban populations]. / Enfermedad arterial periférica y factores de riesgo en pacientes diabéticos tipo 2: Diferencias en medio urbano y suburbano.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the prevalence of peripheral arterial disease (PAD) in type 2 diabetes patients and to measure the strength of the association of selected risk factors. METHODOLOGY: A cross-sectional study including two hundred and fifty-two type 2 diabetes patients older than 40 years was conducted in three family medicine clinics, one clinic located within the city and two clinics in the suburb. PAD was diagnosed by Doppler pulsed in the patients with an ankle/arm index < 0.9. CLINICAL VARIABLES: Serum cholesterol and triglycerides levels, body mass index (BMI), waist-hip index (WHI), blood pressure (BP) and fasting blood glucose average of the last six months. To ascertain the differences in the prevalence of PAD, chi(2) test was used; t test was used for quantitative variables; and to estimate the risks the odds ratios were calculated. RESULTS: Among urban population the prevalence of PAD was of 25.6% while for those living in the suburb was 9.8 % (p = 0.002). Serum levels of blood glucose and cholesterol were lower in the latter (p = 0.01 and p = 0.001 respectively). PAD was associated with serum blood glucose levels higher than 140 mg/dL (OR = 3.1; 95% CI: 1-9.7); total cholesterol higher than 200 mg/dL (OR = 2.8; 95% CI: 1.1-7.4); proteinuria (OR = 4.9; 95% CI: 1.7-30.6) and blood pressure higher than 140/90 mm Hg (OR = 2.11; 95% CI: 1.08-4.14). CONCLUSIONS: Prevalence of PAD was higher in type 2 diabetes patients receiving care in urban clinics when compared to those cared for at suburban family medicine clinics and its corresponding risk factors showed significant values.

[Professional burnout in family physicians and its association with social demographic and labor factors]. / Desgaste profesional en médicos familiares y su asociación con factores sociodemográficos y laborales.

OBJECTIVE: To determinate the prevalence of burnout in family physicians of the Family Medicine Units in the Estado de México and its association with labor and socio demographics factors. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A transversal study was made in five Family Medicine Units. 154 physicians of both sex participated in this study. The Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) which measures the burnout in its three dimensions: emotional fatigue (EC), depersonalization (DP) and personal realization (PR), was applied by self-administration. Socio-demographic and labor details were obtained. RESULTS: Response rate was 85. A high CE was significantly associated to inadequate physical area, OR 3.9 CI 95% 1.5-10.6; to work load OR 7.6 CI 95% 1.6-50.7 and to lack of labor incentives OR 4.4 CI 95% 1.7-11.9 depersonalization was associated only with salary OR 2.6 CI 95% 1.05-6.4. CONCLUSIONS: Family physicians of Mexican Institute of Social Security have labor factors that are associated with burnout that can affect patient's attention.

[Frequency of gastroesophageal reflux disease in elderly patients attending a family medicine clinic]. / Frecuencia de síntomas de ERGE en adultos mayores que acuden a una unidad de medicina familiar.

OBJECTIVES: To ascertain the prevalence of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) in elderly people attending to family medicine clinics. MATERIAL AND METHODS: the study was conducted by using a prospective design in which participants were randomly selected from a family medicine clinic located in Mexico City. The study was run from August to September 2003, and included patients aged sixty years or older, regardless of gender. They should not have cognitive damage, which was ascertained by the Folstein Mini Mental State Examination. Those patients that did not accept to participate and those having incomplete or illegible medical records were excluded. The socio-demographic characteristics test and Carlsson-Dent test were applied. The information about diagnosis, drugs prescriptions, and pharmacological and no pharmacological gastroesophageal protection was obtained from the medical charts and prescriptions. RESULTS: 400 elderly patients were evaluated by using the Carlsson-Dent test. GERD prevalence was 25% (CI 95% 21-29) the average age of patients with and without GERD was 68 +/- 7 years and 70 +/- 7 years respectively (p = .002). Women suffered GERD more frequently than men (p = 0.001). GERD diagnosis was not found in any of the reviewed medical charts. Antacids, histamine-2 receptor antagonists (H2 As) and prokinetics were prescribed in 39% (CI 95% 34-44) of patients with GERD and in 18% (CI 95% 15-21) without GERD. CONCLUSIONS: Elderly patients attending to primary care facilities often have GERD symptoms, but they are not properly diagnosed or followed up. The Carlsson-Dent questionnaire is an alternative to identify GERD patients.

[Overweight and obesity in health team of a family medicine unit]. / Sobrepeso y obesidad en personal de salud de una unidad de medicina familiar.

INTRODUCTION: The overweight and obesity are important public health problems in Mexico and around the world because it has been a progressive growth. OBJECTIVES: To identify the frequency of overweight and obesity in heath workers at a family care unit in the Mexican Institute of Social Security. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A descriptive, glimpsing and transversal study was done. In this study were included 207 workers between them were family doctors, gastroenterologists, nurses, medical assistants, social workers and laboratory workers. All of them were personnel of the health care unit and they were follow from January to February 2001. The body mass index was measured (kg/m(2)) on all of them and the results are the following: RESULTS: There were overweight and obese in 46% of them; the results showed that males were more affected (54%) in comparison with studies in Mexican adult in general population. According to age, people 50 years old or more were most affected (57%). According with the kind of health job that they do, the laboratory workers got 64%, family doctors and gastroenterologist got 58%, they were the most affected groups. CONCLUSIONS: Overweight and obesity were frequent in heath care workers. This research shows a higher frequency of obesity in men compared with the studies of general adult population in Mexico. It is necessary to apply health care programs to improve life style and nutrition between health workers as well as fit programs.

[Development and initial validation of an instrument to measure the lifestyles of type 2 diabetes mellitus patients 2]. / Construcción y validación inicial de un instrumento para medir el estilo de vida en pacientes con diabetes mellitus tipo 2.

OBJECTIVE: To develop and validate a specific instrument to measure lifestyle of type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM2) patients. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A longitudinal, observational, prospective study was conducted between March 2001 and April 2002 at family medicine healthcare units of the Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (Mexican Institute of Social Security (MISS)) in Mexico State's East District. A self-administered instrument (instrument to measure diabetic lifestyles, IMEVID) was designed to measure the lifestyles of diabetic patients. It was submitted for review by a multidisciplinary group of experts who assessed its logical and content validity to measure the lifestyle in DM2 patients. The instrument was administered on two different days to 412 adult subjects with DM2. Some items were excluded on the basis of the frequency with which their answer choices were selected, as well as the item-total correlation, and the item's significant loads in several domains in factorial analysis. RESULTS: The sample population consisted of 389 (94.7% response) subjects who completed the study. Intraclass correlation coefficients for logical and content validity were 0.91 and 0.95 respectively. After depuration of items, the instrument had 25 closed items grouped in 7 domains: nutrition, physical activity, tobacco consumption, alcohol consumption, information on diabetes, emotions, and therapeutic adherence. The global rating of the questionnaire had a Cronbach's alpha of 0.81 and a test-retest correlation coefficient of 0.84. CONCLUSIONS: The specific questionnaire IMEVID is the first to measure the lifestyle in subjects with DM2. It has logical validity, content validity, and a good level of consistency.

Construcción y validación inicial de un instrumento para medir el estilo de vida en pacientes con diabetes mellitus tipo 2 / Development and initial validation of an instrument to measure lifestyle of type 2 diabetes mellitus patients

OBJETIVO: Construir y validar un instrumento específico para medir el estilo de vida en los pacientes con diabetes mellitus tipo 2. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Entre marzo de 2001 y abril de 2002 se hizo un estudio observacional, longitudinal y prospectivo en unidades de medicina familiar de la delegación Estado de México Oriente, del Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social. Se diseñó un instrumento de autoadministración, denominado instrumento para medir el estilo de vida en diabéticos, el cual fue sometido a revisión por un panel multidisciplinario de expertos para determinar su validez lógica y de contenido. Se aplicó el instrumento en dos días diferentes a 412 sujetos adultos con diabetes mellitus. Fueron depurados los ítems considerando la frecuencia de selección de sus opciones de respuesta, su correlación ítem-total y su carga significativa en los dominios durante el análisis factorial. RESULTADOS: Completaron el estudio 389 (94.7 por ciento) sujetos. Los coeficientes de correlación intra-clase para la validez lógica y de contenido fueron de 0.91 y 0.95, respectivamente. Después de la depuración de ítems se obtuvo un instrumento conformado por 25 preguntas cerradas, distribuidas en siete dominios: nutrición, actividad física, consumo de tabaco, consumo de alcohol, información sobre diabetes, emociones y adherencia terapéutica. El a de Cronbach para la calificación total fue de 0.81 y el coeficiente de correlación test-retest de 0.84. CONCLUSIONES: El instrumento para medir el estilo de vida en diabéticos es el primer cuestionario específico para sujetos con diabetes mellitus tipo 2 y tiene validez aparente, validez de contenido y buen nivel de consistencia

[Family-physician factors associated with glycemic control of patients with diabetes mellitus]. / Factores de los médicos familiares asociados al control glucémico de sus pacientes con diabetes mellitus.

INTRODUCTION: Metabolic control of patients with diabetes is determined by several factors, among others competence level, performance, and attitudes of primary-care physicians. OBJECTIVE: On objective was to determinate family physician factors associated with glycemic control in subjects with diabetes in two Family Medicine Units (FMU). DESIGN: Cross-sectional comparative study. SETTING: Two Family Medicine Units of the Mexican Institute Social Security. INTERVENTIONS: Family physician demographic factors were measured (age, sex, job seniority, time of university graduation, and had to have studied a specialty residence studied). Two validated instruments were applied to measure attitude level and handling competence of DM 2, and we determined glycemic level in the previous months of five diabetic patients by consulting room. RESULTS: Forty family physicians were evaluated, mean age 43.9 years, 57.5% with a residence in Family Medicine. Better glycemic control was associated with job seniority, OR 2.49 (CI 0.96-6.6), time of university graduation > 10 years with OR 2.11 (CI 1.4-2.9), to have at least one course related with diabetes in the previous year with OR 4.8 (IC 0.39-22), and competence level OR 2.02 (CI 0.36-11.3) CONCLUSIONS: There association between better glycemic control and more professional experience and training on diabetes in the previous year.

[Comparison of fasting and 2 hours postprandial blood glucose in the control of patients with type 2 diabetes]. / Comparación de la glucemia en ayuno y dos horas postprandial en el control de pacientes con diabetes tipo 2.

BACKGROUND: Fasting glycemia is a questionable control test for subjects with diabetes mellitus. 2-h postprandial glycemia is an element that must be considered as complementary in controlling the disease. OBJECTIVES: Compare usefulness of fasting glycemia and 2-h postprandial glycemia as control tests in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. DESIGN: Study of diagnostic test. MATERIAL AND METHODS: 112 patients were included in the study, age mean 59 +/- 10.9 and evolution of diagnosis 10.2 +/- 8.3 years. We calculated the mean of three fasting glycemias at the beginning of the study and three determinations of 2-h postprandial glycemia. The habitual drug administration was continued. Sensibility, specificity, predictive values, and precision of each measurement were calculated in relation to HbA1C as a Gold Standard. RESULTS: Correlation of fasting glycemia was 0.74 p < 0.01, and correlation of postprandial glycemia was 0.79 p < 0.01. Fasting glycemia had a sensibility of 0.71 and a specificity of 98. 2-h postprandial glycemia had a sensibility of 0.79 and a specificity of 0.86. When combining fasting glycemia and postprandial glycemia, sensibility was 0.85 and specificity was 1. CONCLUSION: 2-h postprandial glycemia level is more precise than fasting glycemia. Both determinations used together increase usefulness in controlling blood glucose level when lacks hemoglobin A1C.

Egresos de pacientes diabéticos en un hospital general regional. Análisis de 7 años / Discharges of patients with diabetes mellitus in a Regional General Hospital. An analysis of 7 years

Introducción: en el Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS) la diabetes mellitus representa la principal causa de internamiento en población adulta.Objetivos: conocer la prevalencia de egresos de pacientes diabéticos en un departamento de medicina interna y la comorbilidad asociada.Diseño: estudio transversal descriptivo.Ubicación: Hospital General Regional 72 (IMSS).Intervenciones: se revisaron 7678 egresos registrados durante siete años. Se excluyeron sujetos con diabetes secundaria y en programa de diálisis intermitente.Resultados: de 2598 (33.8 por ciento) egresos por diabetes mellitus, 95.8 por ciento correspondió al tipo 2. La comorbilidad aguda infecciosa se presentó en 50.7 por ciento, 48 por ciento debido a infección de las vías urinarias. La comorbilidad aguda infecciosa y la no infecciosa fueron tres veces más frecuentes en mayores de 60 años; la crónica se presentó en 84.5 por ciento, siendo la hipertensión arterial la patología más común (45.7 por ciento). La mortalidad global fue de 4.5 por ciento, con letalidad general de 13 por ciento, de 4.8 por ciento en pacientes de 60 años o menores y de 19.5 por ciento en mayores de esta edad.Conclusiones: la prevalencia de egresos de pacientes con diabetes es elevado. Existe mayor mortalidad, comorbilidad aguda y crónica en sujetos mayores de 60 años.