Rare PTH Gene Mutations Causing Parathyroid Disorders: A Review

Since parathyroid hormone (PTH) was first isolated and its gene (PTH) was sequenced, only eight PTH mutations have been discovered. The C18R mutation in PTH, discovered in 1990, was the first to be reported. This autosomal dominant mutation induces endoplasmic reticulum stress and subsequent apoptosis in parathyroid cells. The next mutation, which was reported in 1992, is associated with exon skipping. The substitution of G with C in the first nucleotide of the second intron results in the exclusion of the second exon; since this exon includes the initiation codon, translation initiation is prevented. An S23P mutation and an S23X mutation at the same residue were reported in 1999 and 2012, respectively. Both mutations resulted in hypoparathyroidism. In 2008, a somatic R83X mutation was detected in a parathyroid adenoma tissue sample collected from a patient with hyperparathyroidism. In 2013, a heterozygous p.Met1_Asp6del mutation was incidentally discovered in a case-control study. Two years later, the R56C mutation was reported; this is the only reported hypoparathyroidism-causing mutation in the mature bioactive part of PTH. In 2017, another heterozygous mutation, M14K, was detected. The discovery of these eight mutations in the PTH gene has provided insights into its function and broadened our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying mutation progression. Further attempts to detect other such mutations will help elucidate the functions of PTH in a more sophisticated manner.

Inhibitory effect of luteolin on the odorant-induced cAMP level in HEK293 cells expressing the olfactory receptor.

Luteolin is a flavonoid in many fruits and vegetables. Although luteolin has important biological functions, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and neuroprotective activities, little is known about the functions of luteolin in the olfactory system. Various odorants can be detected and distinguished by using several molecular processes, including the binding of odorants to odorant receptors, activation of adenylyl cyclase (AC), changes of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and Ca(2+) levels in olfactory sensory neurons, as well as changes in membrane potentials and the transmission of electric signals to the brain. Because AC-cAMP signal transduction plays a pivotal role in the olfactory system, we evaluated the effects of luteolin on the AC-cAMP pathway that had been stimulated by the odorant eugenol. We demonstrated that eugenol caused an upregulation of the cAMP level and the phosphorylation of phosphokinase A (PKA, a downstream target of cAMP) in human embryonic kidney 293 (HEK293) cells expressing the murine eugenol receptor. This upregulation significantly decreased in the presence of luteolin, suggesting that luteolin inhibited the odorant-induced production of cAMP and affected the downstream phosphorylation of PKA.