Neovascularization by DPSC-ECs in a Tube Model for Pulp Regeneration Study.

The process of neovascularization during cell-based pulp regeneration is difficult to study. Here we developed a tube model that simulates root canal space and allows direct visualization of the vascularization process in vitro. Endothelial-like cells (ECs) derived from guiding human dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs) into expressing endothelial cell markers CD144, vWF, VEGFR1, and VEGFR2 were used. Human microvascular endothelial cells (hMVECs) were used as a positive control. DPSC-ECs formed tubules on Matrigel similar to hMVECs. Cells were mixed in fibrinogen/thrombin or mouse blood and seeded into wells of 96-well plates or injected into a tapered plastic tube (14 mm in length and 1 or 2 mm diameter of the apex opening) with the larger end sealed with MTA to simulate root canal space. Cells/gels in wells or tubes were incubated for various times in vitro and observed under the microscope for morphological changes. Samples were then fixed and processed for histological analysis to determine vessel formation. Vessel-like networks were observed in culture from 1 to 3 d after cell seeding. Cells/gels in 96-well plates were maintained up to 25 d. Histologically, both hMVECs and DPSC-ECs in 96-well plates or tubes showed intracellular vacuole formation. Some cells showed merged large vacuoles indicating the lumenization. Tubular structures were also observed resembling blood vessels. Cells appeared healthy throughout the tube except some samples (1 mm apical diameter) in the coronal third. Histological analysis also showed pulp-like soft tissue throughout the tube samples with vascular-like structures. hMVECs formed larger vascular lumen size than DPSC-ECs while the latter tended to have more lumen and tubular structure counts. We conclude that DPSC-ECs can form vascular structures and sustained in the 3-dimensional fibrin gel system in vitro. The tube model appears to be a proper and simple system simulating the root canal space for vascular formation and pulp regeneration studies.

Solid stress facilitates spheroid formation: potential involvement of hyaluronan.

When neoplastic cells grow in confined spaces in vivo, they exert a finite force on the surrounding tissue resulting in the generation of solid stress. By growing multicellular spheroids in agarose gels of defined mechanical properties, we have recently shown that solid stress inhibits the growth of spheroids and that this growth-inhibiting stress ranges from 45 to 120 mmHg. Here we show that solid stress facilitates the formation of spheroids in the highly metastatic Dunning R3327 rat prostate carcinoma AT3.1 cells, which predominantly do not grow as spheroids in free suspension. The maximum size and the growth rate of the resulting spheroids decreased with increasing stress. Relieving solid stress by enzymatic digestion of gels resulted in gradual loss of spheroidal morphology in 8 days. In contrast, the low metastatic variant AT2.1 cells, which grow as spheroids in free suspension as well as in the gels, maintained their spheroidal morphology even after stress removal. Histological examination revealed that most cells in AT2.1 spheroids are in close apposition whereas a regular matrix separates the cells in the AT3.1 gel spheroids. Staining with the hyaluronan binding protein revealed that the matrix between AT3.1 cells in agarose contained hyaluronan, while AT3.1 cells had negligible or no hyaluronan when grown in free suspension. Hyaluronan was found to be present in both free suspensions and agarose gel spheroids of AT2.1. We suggest that cell-cell adhesion may be adequate for spheroid formation, whereas solid stress may be required to form spheroids when cell-matrix adhesion is predominant. These findings have significant implications for tumour growth, invasion and metastasis.

Vascular morphogenesis and remodeling in a model of tissue repair: blood vessel formation and growth in the ovarian pedicle after ovariectomy.

To investigate mechanisms of vascular morphogenesis in tissue repair, we performed ovariectomy with resection of the corresponding branches of the ovarian vessels in nude mice. This induces a vascular network remodeling response in the healing ovarian pedicle. Reconstruction of 2000 histological serial sections demonstrated that a new vascular network composed of venous-venous loops forms in the wall of the dilated ovarian vein. Preexisting veins of all sizes, including a branch of the main artery, are subjected to segmentation. Loop formation and segmentation are based on intussusceptive microvascular growth. Loop formation is followed by elongation. Loop remodeling occurs also by intussusception and results in the formation of compound loop systems. All loop systems observed were completely patent. Blind-ending sprouts were extremely rare. Anastomoses between the preexisting vessels subjected to segmentation and the loop systems were established to include the newly formed vessels into the preexisting vascular network. The formation of an increasing number of patent loop systems likely decreases hypoxia and subsequently arrests angiogenesis with transformation of the granulation tissue into a scar. Loop formation also occurred inside a large thrombus that occluded a part of the lumen of the main vein.

Vascular morphogenesis and remodeling in a human tumor xenograft: blood vessel formation and growth after ovariectomy and tumor implantation.

To determine mechanisms of blood vessel formation and growth in solid tumors, we used a model in which LS174T human colon adenocarcinomas are grown in the isolated ovarian pedicle of nude mice. Reconstruction of 3500 histological serial sections demonstrated that a new vascular network composed of venous-venous loops of varying sizes grows inside the tumor from the wall of the adjacent main vein. Loops elongate and remodel to establish complex loop systems. The mechanisms of loop formation and remodeling correspond to intussusceptive microvascular growth (IMG). In the tissue surrounding the tumor segmentation, another mechanism of IMG is prevalent in venous vessels. Comparison to vascular morphogenesis in the ovariectomized pedicle not only confirms the existence of corresponding mechanisms in both systems, but also reveals numerous sprouts that are superimposed onto loop systems and pathological deviations of loop formation, remodeling, and segmentation in the tumor. These pathological mechanisms interfere with vessel patency that likely cause heterogenous perfusion and hypoxia thus perpetuating angiogenesis. Blood vessel formation based on IMG was also detected in a large thrombus that completely occluded a part of an ovarian artery branch.

Decorin inhibits endothelial migration and tube-like structure formation: role of thrombospondin-1.

Interactions between endothelial cell receptors and the extracellular matrix (ECM) play a critical, yet poorly understood role in angiogenesis. Based on the anti-adhesive role of decorin, we hypothesized that decorin binding to ECM molecules such as thrombospondin-1 (TSP-1) plays a regulatory role in endothelial tube-like structure (TLS) formation. To test this hypothesis, endothelial cells were plated on TSP-1, decorin, or mixed substrates of TSP-1 plus decorin. TLS formation was induced by applying type I collagen on the confluent endothelial monolayer. Cartilage decorin inhibited the formation of TLSs in a concentration-dependent manner. On substrates of high decorin concentrations (2.5 and 5.0 microg/cm(2)) the reduction in TLSs was due either to a reduction in the number of adhering cells or to decreased cell migration. At low decorin concentrations (0.05 and 0.25 microg/cm(2)) the reduction in TLSs was independent of the number of attached cells. Time-lapse video microscopy revealed that decorin substrates facilitated homotypic aggregation and isolated cord formation at the expense of endothelial migration and TLS formation. Consistent with the reduced migration, endothelial cells formed fewer vinculin-positive focal adhesions and actin-stress fibers on decorin substrates. Endothelial migration and TLS formation were also significantly inhibited by skin decorin and the protein core of cartilage decorin. The inhibition of TLS formation by the protein core of cartilage decorin was potentiated by TSP-1. These findings suggest that decorin alone or in combination with TSP-1 interferes with the activation of endothelial cell receptors by ECM molecules, thus blocking intracellular signals that induce cytoskeletal reorganization, migration, and TLS formation.

Modulation of A-NK cell rigidity: In vitro characterization and in vivo implications for cell delivery.

The delivery of cells to specific regions of the vasculature is a critical step in many therapeutic strategies. These include the packaging of DNA or RNA in cell "vehicles" for delivery to tissues, the reconstitution of differentiated cells to an organ using embryonic stem cells, and the enhancement of the immune response using effector lymphocytes. In most cases, these cells must be injected systemically. Unfortunately, ex vivo manipulation or activation can affect cell visco-elastic properties, making it difficult for the injected cells to traverse capillary beds. Compounding the problem is the fact that common agents used in the laboratory for increasing cell deformability generally have adverse side effects on the therapeutic potential of the cells. Using micropipet aspiration techniques, cytotoxicity assays and in vivo trafficking studies we show that: (1) the rigidity of injected effector cells directly affects resistance to passage through tissue; (2) modulation of cytoskeletal organization can be used to decrease cell rigidity, but can also compromise therapeutic efficacy; and (3) thioglycollate, an agent which does not influence effector lymphocyte cytotoxic activity, reduces cell rigidity and entrapment in the lungs.

Kinetics of placenta growth factor/vascular endothelial growth factor synergy in endothelial hydraulic conductivity and proliferation.

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) was originally discovered as vascular permeability factor because of its ability to increase microvascular permeability to plasma proteins. Since then, it has been shown to induce proliferation and migration in endothelial cells. Placenta growth factor (PlGF) is a member of the VEGF family of growth factors, but has little or undetectable mitogenic activity on endothelial cells. Intriguingly, however, PlGF was able to potentiate the action of low concentrations of VEGF on endothelial cell growth and macromolecule permeability in vitro. Here we show that PlGF can potentiate the effects of VEGF on the hydraulic conductivity of certain endothelial cells and that the duration of pretreatment with PlGF determines the resulting response. Hydraulic conductivity (Lp) was calculated from the water flux across the monolayer of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) or bovine aortic endothelial cells (BAECs). After 2 h of exposure to VEGF(165), the Lp of BAEC monolayers increased threefold, but the Lp of HUVEC monolayers did not increase. PlGF alone induced a small (63%) increase in Lp in BAECs, but not in HUVECs. BAEC, but not HUVEC, monolayers exposed first to PlGF and then to VEGF exhibited a seven- to eightfold increase in Lp. This enhancement in BAEC Lp could be observed for 4 h after the administration of PlGF. PlGF also potentiated the effect of VEGF on BAEC proliferation. Thus, augmentation of VEGF action by PlGF depends on the duration of PlGF exposure and on the origin of endothelial cells.

Lateral view flow system for studies of cell adhesion and deformation under flow conditions.

Physical interactions between circulating cells and the vascular wall play a central role in inflammation, metastasis, atherosclerosis, and therapeutic cell delivery. Unfortunately, traditional in vitro flow assays cannot be used to visualize the details of cell-surface interactions in blood flow because of inappropriate geometry and the poor penetration of light in erythrocyte solutions. To overcome these obstacles, we have developed an agarose-cast cylindrical vessel system to examine the profiles of cells interacting with surfaces under flow conditions. This design allows observation and quantification of cell deformation as cells adhere to surfaces under dynamic flow conditions without modifying the microscope or optical path. Furthermore, our flow system is uniquely suited for monitoring the profiles of adherent leukocytes deforming in response to erythrocyte suspension flow. We have used this flow system to study the role of erythrocytes in leukocyte-substrate interactions. Our results show that the cell deformation index (the ratio of the cell length to cell height) is higher in erythrocyte solutions compared to erythrocyte-free saline. This novel lateral view flow system provides a powerful technique for visualizing and quantifying the morphological changes of cells in contact with substrates exposed to shear stress.

Mosaic blood vessels in tumors: frequency of cancer cells in contact with flowing blood.

The presence of "mosaic" vessels in which both endothelial cells and tumor cells form the luminal surface has profound implications for metastasis, drug delivery, and antivascular therapy. Yet little is known of the frequency, and thus importance, of mosaic vessels in tumors. Using CD31 and CD105 to identify endothelial cells and endogenous green fluorescent protein labeling of tumor cells, we show that approximately 15% of perfused vessels of a colon carcinoma xenografted at two different sites in mice were mosaic vessels having focal regions where no CD31/CD105 immunoreactivity was detected and tumor cells appeared to contact the vessel lumen. These regions occupied approximately 25% of the perimeter of the mosaic vessels, or approximately 4% of the total vascular surface area in these colon carcinomas. In addition, we found similar numbers of mosaic vessels in human colon carcinoma biopsies. Our results are consistent with the observation that approximately 10(6) cells are shed daily per g of tumor. More importantly, our data offer a possible explanation for the antivascular effects of cytotoxic agents and suggest potential strategies for targeting the tumor vasculature.

Effect of vascular endothelial growth factor on cultured endothelial cell monolayer transport properties.

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is a potent enhancer of microvascular permeability in vivo. To date, its effects on hydraulic conductivity (L(p)) and diffusive albumin permeability (P(e)) of endothelial monolayers have not been thoroughly assessed in vitro. We hypothesized that VEGF affects endothelial transport properties differently depending on vessel location and endothelial phenotype. Using three well-established endothelial cell culture models-human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), bovine aortic endothelial cells (BAECs), and bovine retinal microvascular cells (BRECs)-grown on porous, polycarbonate filters we were able to produce baseline transport properties characteristic of restrictive barriers. Our results show 3.1-fold and 5.7-fold increases in endothelial L(p) for BAEC and BREC monolayers, respectively, at the end of 3 h of VEGF (100 ng/ml) exposure. HUVECs, however, showed no significant alteration in L(p) after 3 h (100 ng/ml) or 24 h (25 ng/ml) of incubation with VEGF even though they were responsive to the inflammatory mediators, thrombin (1 U/ml; 27-fold increase in L(p) in 25 min) and bradykinin (10 microM; 4-fold increase in L(p) in 20 min). Protein kinase C (PKC) and nitric oxide (NO) are downstream effectors of VEGF signaling. BAEC L(p) was responsive to activation of NO (SNAP) and PKC (PMA), whereas these agents had no effect in altering HUVEC L(p). Moreover, BAECs exposed to the PKC inhibitor, staurosporine (50 ng/ml), exhibited significant attenuation of VEGF-induced increase in L(p), but inhibition of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) with L-NMMA (100 microM) had no effect in altering the VEGF-induced increase in L(p). These data provide strong evidence that in BAECs, the VEGF-induced increase in L(p) is mediated by a PKC-dependent mechanism. Regarding diffusive albumin P(e), at the end of 3 h, BAECs and BRECs showed 6.0-fold and 9. 9-fold increases in P(e) in response to VEGF (100 ng/ml), whereas VEGF had no significant effect after 3 h (100 ng/ml) or 24 h (25 ng/ml) in changing HUVEC P(e). In summary, these data indicate that VEGF affects endothelial transport properties differently depending on the vessel type and that differences in cell signaling pathways underlie the differences in VEGF responsiveness.

Effect of local anti-VEGF antibody treatment on tumor microvessel permeability.

Recent studies have shown that systemic injection of anti-VEGF antibody into tumor-bearing mice results in decreases in tumor vascular permeability, vessel diameters, and tumor regression. Using a similar animal model, we have applied anti-VEGF antibody directly to the tumor tissue growing in transparent window chambers in SCID mice. Similar to the results obtained with systemic injection, vascular permeability was greatly reduced, but the response was reached at much lower concentrations with local application. Implications of these findings on local control of tumors are discussed.

In vitro and in vivo quantification of adhesion between leukocytes and vascular endothelium.

When a leukocyte enters a blood vessel, it may continue to move with flowing blood, collide with the vessel wall, adhere transiently or stably, and finally extravasate (1). These interactions are governed by both local hydrodynamic and adhesive forces. The former are determined by the vessel diameter, fluid velocity, viscosity, and hematocrit, and the latter by the number, strength and kinetics of bond formation between adhesion molecules, and by surface area of contact (1-6). Cellular deformability affects both types of forces (7-9). Two families of cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) are involved in leukocyte rolling and stable adhesion. In general, the selectins (P, L, and E) mediate rolling, while the IgG superfamily members (ICAM-1 and VCAM-1) on endothelial cells, with their cognate receptors (ß(2) and ß(1) integrin receptors) on the leukocytes, mediate firm adhesion, with some overlap in these functions (10-12). The expression of CAMs on the endothelial cells and leukocytes can be modulated by cytokines secreted by a variety of cells (e.g., cancer cells, fibroblasts, macrophages) (13,14). Cellular deformability can be modulated by altering the cytoskeleton, membrane, or cytoplasm, with the cytoskeleton playing the dominant role (7,15,16). In this chapter, we describe methods to quantitate cellular deformability in vitro, CAM expression in vitro, leukocyte-endothelial interaction (LEI) in vitro, and LEI in vivo.

Early events of metastasis in the microcirculation involve changes in gene expression of cancer cells. Tracking mRNA levels of metastasizing cancer cells in the chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane.

The early events of metastasis involve multiple interactions between cancer cells and the host microcirculation during cancer cell arrest, adhesion, and extravasation. These interactions may lead to changes in gene expression of the metastasizing cancer cells, although such changes have never been demonstrated directly. To test this hypothesis, B16-F10 murine melanoma cells were injected intravenously into the chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane (CAM), and mRNA levels in the metastasizing cancer cells were evaluated by species-specific reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. Unlike standard mouse models of experimental metastasis, the CAM model showed successful extravasation of a large number of the arrested cancer cells in the CAM microcirculation without significant cancer cell death, providing a unique opportunity to keep track of mRNA levels in cancer cells during the early phases of metastasis. Using this model, we were able to demonstrate directly the temporal induction of cancer cell genes that potentially affect metastatic efficiency, namely, Fos (5 to 60 minutes after injection), vascular permeability factor (4 to 7 hours), and urokinase plasminogen activator (> 9 hours). In conclusion, using the CAM system, we have observed an alteration of gene expression in cancer cells in the early phases of metastasis, most likely as a consequence of host-cancer cell interactions. These changes may influence the metastatic behavior of cancer cells.

A model for the kinetics of homotypic cellular aggregation under static conditions.

We present the formulation and testing of a mathematical model for the kinetics of homotypic cellular aggregation. The model considers cellular aggregation under no-flow conditions as a two-step process. Individual cells and cell aggregates 1) move on the tissue culture surface and 2) collide with other cells (or aggregates). These collisions lead to the formation of intercellular bonds. The aggregation kinetics are described by a system of coupled, nonlinear ordinary differential equations, and the collision frequency kernel is derived by extending Smoluchowski's colloidal flocculation theory to cell migration and aggregation on a two-dimensional surface. Our results indicate that aggregation rates strongly depend upon the motility of cells and cell aggregates, the frequency of cell-cell collisions, and the strength of intercellular bonds. Model predictions agree well with data from homotypic lymphocyte aggregation experiments using Jurkat cells activated by 33B6, an antibody to the beta 1 integrin. Since cell migration speeds and all the other model parameters can be independently measured, the aggregation model provides a quantitative methodology by which we can accurately evaluate the adhesivity and aggregation behavior of cells.

During angiogenesis, vascular endothelial growth factor and basic fibroblast growth factor regulate natural killer cell adhesion to tumor endothelium.

Localization of activated natural killer (A-NK) cells in the microvasculature of growing tumors is the result of recognition of the intracellular and vascular cell-adhesion molecules ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 on the tumor endothelium, mediated by lymphocyte function-associated protein LFA-1 and vascular lymphocyte function-associated protein VLA-4. In vitro and in vivo studies of A-NK cell adhesion to endothelial cells showed that vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) promotes adhesion, whereas basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) inhibits adhesion through the regulation of these molecules on tumor vasculature. Thus, some angiogenic factors may facilitate lymphocyte recognition of angiogenic vessels, whereas others may provide such vessels with a mechanism that protects them from cytotoxic lymphocytes.

Role of erythrocytes in leukocyte-endothelial interactions: mathematical model and experimental validation.

The binding of circulating cells to the vascular wall is a central process in inflammation, metastasis, and therapeutic cell delivery. Previous in vitro studies have identified the adhesion molecules on various circulating cells and the endothelium that govern the process under static conditions. Other studies have attempted to simulate in vivo conditions by subjecting adherent cells to shear stress as they interact with the endothelial cells in vitro. These experiments are generally performed with the cells suspended in Newtonian solutions. However, in vivo conditions are more complex because of the non-Newtonian flow of blood, which is a suspension consisting of 20-40% erythrocytes by volume. The forces imparted by the erythrocytes in the flow can contribute to the process of cell adhesion. A number of experimental and theoretical studies have suggested that the rheology of blood can influence the binding of circulating leukocytes by increasing the normal and axial forces on leukocytes or the frequency of their collision with the vessel wall, but there have been no systematic investigations of these phenomena to date. The present study quantifies the contribution of red blood cells (RBCs) in cell capture and adhesion to endothelial monolayers using a combination of mathematical modeling and in vitro studies. Mathematical modeling of the flow experiments suggested a physical mechanism involving RBC-induced leukocyte dispersion and/or increased normal adhesive contact. Flow chamber studies performed with and without RBCs in the suspending medium showed increases in wall collision and binding frequencies, and a decrease in rolling velocity in the presence of erythrocytes. Increased fluid viscosity alone did not influence the binding frequency, and the differences could not be attributed to large near-wall excesses of the lymphocytes. The results indicate that RBCs aid in the transport and initial engagement of lymphocytes to the vascular wall, modifying the existing paradigm for immune cell surveillance of the vascular endothelium by adding the erythrocyte as an essential contributor to this process.

Leukocyte-endothelial adhesion and angiogenesis in tumors.

Leukocyte-endothelial adhesion and angiogenesis, until recently considered as separate processes, have been shown to be linked by two recent findings: soluble cellular adhesion molecules (CAMs) involved in leukocyte-endothelial interactions are angiogenic and well known angiogenic molecules secreted by cancer or immune. cells can modulate the endothelial CAMs. This molecular link may partially explain why the overall leukocyte-endothelial interaction is often low and heterogeneous in angiogenic tumor vessels and why activated lymphocytes adhere nonuniformly to tumor vessels when injected into the tumor's blood supply.