Structure guided design of a series of selective pyrrolopyrimidinone MARK inhibitors.

The initial structure activity relationships around an isoindoline uHTS hit will be described. Information gleaned from ligand co-crystal structures allowed for rapid refinements in both MARK potency and kinase selectivity. These efforts allowed for the identification of a compound with properties suitable for use as an in vitro tool compound for validation studies on MARK as a viable target for Alzheimer's disease.

Optimization of microtubule affinity regulating kinase (MARK) inhibitors with improved physical properties.

Inhibition of microtubule affinity regulating kinase (MARK) represents a potentially attractive means of arresting neurofibrillary tangle pathology in Alzheimer's disease. This manuscript outlines efforts to optimize a pyrazolopyrimidine series of MARK inhibitors by focusing on improvements in potency, physical properties and attributes amenable to CNS penetration. A unique cylcyclohexyldiamine scaffold was identified that led to remarkable improvements in potency, opening up opportunities to reduce MW, Pgp efflux and improve pharmacokinetic properties while also conferring improved solubility.

Structure and Function of the Hypertension Variant A486V of G Protein-coupled Receptor Kinase 4.

G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) kinases (GRKs) bind to and phosphorylate GPCRs, initiating the process of GPCR desensitization and internalization. GRK4 is implicated in the regulation of blood pressure, and three GRK4 polymorphisms (R65L, A142V, and A486V) are associated with hypertension. Here, we describe the 2.6 Å structure of human GRK4α A486V crystallized in the presence of 5'-adenylyl ß,γ-imidodiphosphate. The structure of GRK4α is similar to other GRKs, although slight differences exist within the RGS homology (RH) bundle subdomain, substrate-binding site, and kinase C-tail. The RH bundle subdomain and kinase C-terminal lobe form a strikingly acidic surface, whereas the kinase N-terminal lobe and RH terminal subdomain surfaces are much more basic. In this respect, GRK4α is more similar to GRK2 than GRK6. A fully ordered kinase C-tail reveals interactions linking the C-tail with important determinants of kinase activity, including the αB helix, αD helix, and the P-loop. Autophosphorylation of wild-type GRK4α is required for full kinase activity, as indicated by a lag in phosphorylation of a peptide from the dopamine D1 receptor without ATP preincubation. In contrast, this lag is not observed in GRK4α A486V. Phosphopeptide mapping by mass spectrometry indicates an increased rate of autophosphorylation of a number of residues in GRK4α A486V relative to wild-type GRK4α, including Ser-485 in the kinase C-tail.

Methyl-substitution of an iminohydantoin spiropiperidine ß-secretase (BACE-1) inhibitor has a profound effect on its potency.

The IC50 of a beta-secretase (BACE-1) lead compound was improved ∼200-fold from 11 µM to 55 nM through the addition of a single methyl group. Computational chemistry, small molecule NMR, and protein crystallography capabilities were used to compare the solution conformation of the ligand under varying pH conditions to its conformation when bound in the active site. Chemical modification then explored available binding pockets adjacent to the ligand. A strategically placed methyl group not only maintained the required pKa of the piperidine nitrogen and filled a small hydrophobic pocket, but more importantly, stabilized the conformation best suited for optimized binding to the receptor.

Antiviral activity and in vitro mutation development pathways of MK-6186, a novel nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor.

MK-6186 is a novel nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI) which displays subnanomolar potency against wild-type (WT) virus and the two most prevalent NNRTI-resistant RT mutants (K103N and Y181C) in biochemical assays. In addition, it showed excellent antiviral potency against K103N and Y181C mutant viruses, with fold changes (FCs) of less than 2 and 5, respectively. When a panel of 12 common NNRTI-associated mutant viruses was tested with MK-6186, only 2 relatively rare mutants (Y188L and V106I/Y188L) were highly resistant, with FCs of >100, and the remaining viruses showed FCs of <10. Furthermore, a panel of 96 clinical virus isolates with NNRTI resistance mutations was evaluated for susceptibility to NNRTIs. The majority (70%) of viruses tested displayed resistance to efavirenz (EFV), with FCs of >10, whereas only 29% of the mutant viruses displayed greater than 10-fold resistance to MK-6186. To determine whether MK-6186 selects for novel resistance mutations, in vitro resistance selections were conducted with one isolate each from subtypes A, B, and C under low-multiplicity-of-infection (MOI) conditions. The results showed a unique mutation development pattern in which L234I was the first mutation to emerge in the majority of the experiments. In resistance selection under high-MOI conditions with subtype B virus, V106A was the dominant mutation detected in the breakthrough viruses. More importantly, mutant viruses selected by MK-6186 showed FCs of <10 against EFV or etravirine (ETR), and the mutant viruses containing mutations selected by EFV or ETR were sensitive to MK-6186 (FCs of <10).

Discovery of pyrrolidine-based ß-secretase inhibitors: lead advancement through conformational design for maintenance of ligand binding efficiency.

We have developed a novel series of pyrrolidine derived BACE-1 inhibitors. The potency of the weak initial lead structure was enhanced using library-based SAR methods. The series was then further advanced by rational design while maintaining a minimal ligand binding efficiency threshold. Ultimately, the co-crystal structure was obtained revealing that these inhibitors interacted with the enzyme in a unique fashion. In all, the potency of the series was enhanced by 4 orders of magnitude from the HTS lead with concomitant increases in physical properties needed for series advancement. The progression of these developments in a systematic fashion is described.

Structural basis for selective small molecule kinase inhibition of activated c-Met.

The receptor tyrosine kinase c-Met is implicated in oncogenesis and is the target for several small molecule and biologic agents in clinical trials for the treatment of cancer. Binding of the hepatocyte growth factor to the cell surface receptor of c-Met induces activation via autophosphorylation of the kinase domain. Here we describe the structural basis of c-Met activation upon autophosphorylation and the selective small molecule inhibiton of autophosphorylated c-Met. MK-2461 is a potent c-Met inhibitor that is selective for the phosphorylated state of the enzyme. Compound 1 is an MK-2461 analog with a 20-fold enthalpy-driven preference for the autophosphorylated over unphosphorylated c-Met kinase domain. The crystal structure of the unbound kinase domain phosphorylated at Tyr-1234 and Tyr-1235 shows that activation loop phosphorylation leads to the ejection and disorder of the activation loop and rearrangement of helix αC and the G loop to generate a viable active site. Helix αC adopts a orientation different from that seen in activation loop mutants. The crystal structure of the complex formed by the autophosphorylated c-Met kinase domain and compound 1 reveals a significant induced fit conformational change of the G loop and ordering of the activation loop, explaining the selectivity of compound 1 for the autophosphorylated state. The results highlight the role of structural plasticity within the kinase domain in imparting the specificity of ligand binding and provide the framework for structure-guided design of activated c-Met inhibitors.

Genetic and pharmacological inhibition of PDK1 in cancer cells: characterization of a selective allosteric kinase inhibitor.

Phosphoinositide-dependent kinase 1 (PDK1) is a critical activator of multiple prosurvival and oncogenic protein kinases and has garnered considerable interest as an oncology drug target. Despite progress characterizing PDK1 as a therapeutic target, pharmacological support is lacking due to the prevalence of nonspecific inhibitors. Here, we benchmark literature and newly developed inhibitors and conduct parallel genetic and pharmacological queries into PDK1 function in cancer cells. Through kinase selectivity profiling and x-ray crystallographic studies, we identify an exquisitely selective PDK1 inhibitor (compound 7) that uniquely binds to the inactive kinase conformation (DFG-out). In contrast to compounds 1-5, which are classical ATP-competitive kinase inhibitors (DFG-in), compound 7 specifically inhibits cellular PDK1 T-loop phosphorylation (Ser-241), supporting its unique binding mode. Interfering with PDK1 activity has minimal antiproliferative effect on cells growing as plastic-attached monolayer cultures (i.e. standard tissue culture conditions) despite reduced phosphorylation of AKT, RSK, and S6RP. However, selective PDK1 inhibition impairs anchorage-independent growth, invasion, and cancer cell migration. Compound 7 inhibits colony formation in a subset of cancer cell lines (four of 10) and primary xenograft tumor lines (nine of 57). RNAi-mediated knockdown corroborates the PDK1 dependence in cell lines and identifies candidate biomarkers of drug response. In summary, our profiling studies define a uniquely selective and cell-potent PDK1 inhibitor, and the convergence of genetic and pharmacological phenotypes supports a role of PDK1 in tumorigenesis in the context of three-dimensional in vitro culture systems.

Distinct mutation pathways of non-subtype B HIV-1 during in vitro resistance selection with nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors.

Studies were conducted to investigate mutation pathways among subtypes A, B, and C of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) during resistance selection with nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) in cell culture under low-multiplicity of infection (MOI) conditions. The results showed that distinct pathways were selected by different virus subtypes under increasing selective pressure of NNRTIs. F227C and Y181C were the major mutations selected by MK-4965 in subtype A and C viruses during resistance selection. With efavirenz (EFV), F227C and V106M were the major mutations responsible for viral breakthrough in subtype A viruses, whereas a single pathway (G190A/V106M) accounted for mutation development in subtype C viruses. Y181C was the dominant mutation in the resistance selection with etravirine (ETV) in subtype A, and E138K/H221Y were the mutations detected in the breakthrough viruses from subtype C viruses with ETV. In subtype B viruses, on the other hand, known NNRTI-associated mutations (e.g., Y181C, P236L, L100I, V179D, and K103N) were selected by the NNRTIs. The susceptibility of the subtype A and B mutant viruses to NNRTIs was determined in order to gain insight into the potential mechanisms of mutation development. Collectively, these results suggest that minor differences may exist in conformation of the residues within the NNRTI binding pocket (NNRTIBP) of reverse transcriptase (RT) among the three subtypes of viruses. Thus, the interactions between NNRTIs and the residues in the NNRTIBPs of different subtypes may not be identical, leading to distinct mutation pathways during resistance selection in cell culture.

Structural basis for the inhibition of RNase H activity of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase by RNase H active site-directed inhibitors.

HIV/AIDS continues to be a menace to public health. Several drugs currently on the market have successfully improved the ability to manage the viral burden in infected patients. However, new drugs are needed to combat the rapid emergence of mutated forms of the virus that are resistant to existing therapies. Currently, approved drugs target three of the four major enzyme activities encoded by the virus that are critical to the HIV life cycle. Although a number of inhibitors of HIV RNase H activity have been reported, few inhibit by directly engaging the RNase H active site. Here, we describe structures of naphthyridinone-containing inhibitors bound to the RNase H active site. This class of compounds binds to the active site via two metal ions that are coordinated by catalytic site residues, D443, E478, D498, and D549. The directionality of the naphthyridinone pharmacophore is restricted by the ordering of D549 and H539 in the RNase H domain. In addition, one of the naphthyridinone-based compounds was found to bind at a second site close to the polymerase active site and non-nucleoside/nucleotide inhibitor sites in a metal-independent manner. Further characterization, using fluorescence-based thermal denaturation and a crystal structure of the isolated RNase H domain reveals that this compound can also bind the RNase H site and retains the metal-dependent binding mode of this class of molecules. These structures provide a means for structurally guided design of novel RNase H inhibitors.

SAR of tertiary carbinamine derived BACE1 inhibitors: role of aspartate ligand amine pKa in enzyme inhibition.

The optimization of tertiary carbinamine derived inhibitors of BACE1 from its discovery as an unstable lead to low nanomolar cell active compounds is described. Five-membered heterocycles are reported as stable and potency enhancing linkers. In the course of this work, we have discovered a clear trend where the activity of inhibitors at a given assay pH is dependent on pK(a) of the amino group that interacts directly with the catalytic aspartates. The potency of compounds as inhibitors of Alphabeta production in a cell culture assay correlated much better with BACE1 enzyme potency measured at pH 7.5 than at pH 4.5.

Structural basis of human p70 ribosomal S6 kinase-1 regulation by activation loop phosphorylation.

p70 ribosomal S6 kinase (p70S6K) is a downstream effector of the mTOR signaling pathway involved in cell proliferation, cell growth, cell-cycle progression, and glucose homeostasis. Multiple phosphorylation events within the catalytic, autoinhibitory, and hydrophobic motif domains contribute to the regulation of p70S6K. We report the crystal structures of the kinase domain of p70S6K1 bound to staurosporine in both the unphosphorylated state and in the 3'-phosphoinositide-dependent kinase-1-phosphorylated state in which Thr-252 of the activation loop is phosphorylated. Unphosphorylated p70S6K1 exists in two crystal forms, one in which the p70S6K1 kinase domain exists as a monomer and the other as a domain-swapped dimer. The crystal structure of the partially activated kinase domain that is phosphorylated within the activation loop reveals conformational ordering of the activation loop that is consistent with a role in activation. The structures offer insights into the structural basis of the 3'-phosphoinositide-dependent kinase-1-induced activation of p70S6K and provide a platform for the rational structure-guided design of specific p70S6K inhibitors.

A conformational constraint improves a beta-secretase inhibitor but for an unexpected reason.

During our ongoing efforts to develop a small molecule inhibitor targeting the beta-amyloid cleaving enzyme (BACE-1), we discovered a class of compounds bearing an aminoimidazole motif. Initial optimization led to potent compounds that have high Pgp efflux ratios. Crystal structure-aided design furnished conformationally constrained compounds that are both potent and have relatively low Pgp efflux ratios. Computational studies performed after these optimizations suggest that the introduction of the constraint enhances potency via additional hydrophobic interactions rather than conformational restriction.

Discovery of aminoheterocycles as a novel beta-secretase inhibitor class: pH dependence on binding activity part 1.

We have developed a novel series of heteroaromatic BACE-1 inhibitors. These inhibitors interact with the enzyme in a unique fashion that allows for potent binding in a non-traditional paradigm. In addition to the elucidation of their binding profile, we have discovered a pH dependent effect on the binding affinity as a result of the intrinsic pK(a) of these inhibitors and the pH of the BACE-1 enzyme binding assay.

Fragment-based discovery of nonpeptidic BACE-1 inhibitors using tethering.

BACE-1 (beta-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme), a prominent target in Alzheimer's disease drug discovery efforts, was surveyed using Tethering technology to discover small molecule fragment ligands that bind to the enzyme active site. Screens of a library of >15000 thiol-containing fragments versus a panel of BACE-1 active site cysteine mutants under redox-controlled conditions revealed several novel amine-containing fragments that could be selectively captured by subsets of the tethering sites. For one such hit class, defined by a central aminobenzylpiperidine (ABP) moiety, X-ray crystal structures of BACE mutant-disulfide conjugates revealed that the fragment bound by engaging both catalytic aspartates with hydrogen bonds. The affinities of ABP fragments were improved by structure-guided chemistry, first for conjugation as thiol-containing fragments and then for stand-alone, noncovalent inhibition of wild-type (WT) BACE-1 activity. Crystallography confirmed that the inhibitors bound in exactly the same mode as the disulfide-conjugated fragments that were originally selected from the screen. The ABP ligands represent a new type of nonpeptidic BACE-1 inhibitor motif that has not been described in the aspartyl protease literature and may serve as a starting point for the development of BACE-1-directed Alzheimer's disease therapeutics.

Development of thioquinazolinones, allosteric Chk1 kinase inhibitors.

A high throughput screening campaign was designed to identify allosteric inhibitors of Chk1 kinase by testing compounds at high concentration. Activity was then observed at K(m) for ATP and at near-physiological concentrations of ATP. This strategy led to the discovery of a non-ATP competitive thioquinazolinone series which was optimized for potency and stability. An X-ray crystal structure for the complex of our best inhibitor bound to Chk1 was solved, indicating that it binds to an allosteric site approximately 13A from the ATP binding site. Preliminary data is presented for several of these compounds.

Structure of human prostasin, a target for the regulation of hypertension.

Prostasin (also called channel activating protease-1 (CAP1)) is an extracellular serine protease implicated in the modulation of fluid and electrolyte regulation via proteolysis of the epithelial sodium channel. Several disease states, particularly hypertension, can be affected by modulation of epithelial sodium channel activity. Thus, understanding the biochemical function of prostasin and developing specific agents to inhibit its activity could have a significant impact on a widespread disease. We report the expression of the prostasin proenzyme in Escherichia coli as insoluble inclusion bodies, refolding and activating via proteolytic removal of the N-terminal propeptide. The refolded and activated enzyme was shown to be pure and monomeric, with kinetic characteristics very similar to prostasin expressed from eukaryotic systems. Active prostasin was crystallized, and the structure was determined to 1.45 A resolution. These apoprotein crystals were soaked with nafamostat, allowing the structure of the inhibited acyl-enzyme intermediate structure to be determined to 2.0 A resolution. Comparison of the inhibited and apoprotein forms of prostasin suggest a mechanism of regulation through stabilization of a loop which interferes with substrate recognition.

Discovery and X-ray crystallographic analysis of a spiropiperidine iminohydantoin inhibitor of beta-secretase.

A high-throughput screen at 100 microM inhibitor concentration for the BACE-1 enzyme revealed a novel spiropiperidine iminohydantoin aspartyl protease inhibitor template. An X-ray cocrystal structure with BACE-1 revealed a novel mode of binding whereby the inhibitor interacts with the catalytic aspartates via bridging water molecules. Using the crystal structure as a guide, potent compounds with good brain penetration were designed.

The discovery of fused pyrrole carboxylic acids as novel, potent D-amino acid oxidase (DAO) inhibitors.

The 'NMDA hypofunction hypothesis of schizophrenia' can be tested in a number of ways. DAO is the enzyme primarily responsible for the metabolism of d-serine, a co-agonist for the NMDA receptor. We identified novel DAO inhibitors, in particular, acid 1, which demonstrated moderate potency for DAO in vitro and ex vivo, and raised plasma d-serine levels after dosing ip to rats. In parallel, analogues were prepared to survey the SARs of 1.