Modern Techniques and Technologies Applied to Training and Performance Monitoring.

Athlete preparation and performance continue to increase in complexity and costs. Modern coaches are shifting from reliance on personal memory, experience, and opinion to evidence from collected training-load data. Training-load monitoring may hold vital information for developing systems of monitoring that follow the training process with such precision that both performance prediction and day-to-day management of training become adjuncts to preparation and performance. Time-series data collection and analyses in sport are still in their infancy, with considerable efforts being applied in "big data" analytics, models of the appropriate variables to monitor, and methods for doing so. Training monitoring has already garnered important applications but lacks a theoretical framework from which to develop further. As such, we propose a framework involving the following: analyses of individuals, trend analyses, rules-based analysis, and statistical process control.

Load Determination for the 3-Minute All-Out Exercise Test for Cycle Ergometry.

PURPOSE: To investigate a new power-to-body-mass (BM) ratio 3-min all-out cycling test (3MT(%BM)) for determining critical power (CP) and finite work capacity above CP (W'). METHODS: The gas-exchange threshold (GET), maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), and power output evoking VO2max (W(peak)) and GET (W(GET)) for cycle ergometry were determined in 12 participants. CP and W' were determined using the original "linear factor" 3MT (3MT(rpm^2)) and compared with CP and W' derived from a procedure, the 3MT(%BM), using the subject's body mass and self-reported physical activity rating (PA-R), with values derived from linear regression of the work-time model and power-inverse-time model (1/time) data from 3 separate exhaustive square-wave bouts. RESULTS: The VO2max, VO(2GET), W(peak), and W(GET) values estimated from PA-R and a non-exercise-regression equation did not differ (P > .05) from actual measurements. Estimates of CP derived from the 3MT(%BM) (235 ± 56 W), 3MT(rpm^2) (234 ± 62 W), work-time (231 ± 57 W), and 1/time models (230 ± 57 W) did not differ (F = 0.46, P = .72). Similarly, estimates of W' between all methods did not differ (F = 3.58, P = .07). There were strong comparisons of the 3MT(%BM) to 1/time and work-time models with the average correlation, standard error of the measurement, and CV% for critical power being .96, 8.74 W, and 4.64%, respectively. CONCLUSION: The 3MT(%BM) is a valid, single-visit protocol for determining CP and W'.

Dynamic Compression Enhances Pressure-to-Pain Threshold in Elite Athlete Recovery: Exploratory Study.

Athlete recovery-adaptation is crucial to the progress and performance of highly trained athletes. The purpose of this study was to assess peristaltic pulse dynamic compression (PPDC) in reducing short-term pressure-to-pain threshold (PPT) among Olympic Training Center athletes after morning training. Muscular tenderness and stiffness are common symptoms of fatigue and exercise-induced muscle microtrauma and edema. Twenty-four highly trained athletes (men = 12 and women = 12) volunteered to participate in this study. The athletes were randomly assigned to experimental (n = 12) and control (n = 12) groups. Pressure-to-pain threshold measurements were conducted with a manual algometer on 3 lower extremity muscles. Experimental group athletes underwent PPDC on both legs through computer-controlled circumferential inflated leggings that used a peristaltic-like pressure pattern from feet to groin. Pressures in each cell were set to factory defaults. Treatment time was 15 minutes. The control group performed the same procedures except that the inflation pump to the leggings was off. The experimental timeline included a morning training session, followed by a PPT pretest, treatment application (PPDC or control), an immediate post-test (PPT), and a delayed post-test (PPT) after the afternoon practice session. Difference score results showed that the experimental group's PPT threshold improved after PPDC treatment immediately and persisted the remainder of the day after afternoon practice. The control group showed no statistical change. We conclude that PPDC is a promising means of accelerating and enhancing recovery after the normal aggressive training that occurs in Olympic and aspiring Olympic athletes.

Peristaltic pulse dynamic compression of the lower extremity enhances flexibility.

This study investigated the effects of peristaltic pulse dynamic compression (PPDC) on range-of-motion (ROM) changes in forward splits. Serious stretching usually involves discomfort and large time investments. Tissue structural changes and stretch tolerance have heretofore been considered the primary mechanisms of enhanced ROM. The PPDC treatment was computer controlled. Circumferential and segmented inflation pressures were induced by feet to hip leggings. Nine subjects, experienced in stretching and a forward split position, volunteered. The subjects were familiarized with the protocol and randomly assigned to an initial condition: experimental (PPDC), or control (CONT). The study involved a crossover design. Second conditions were tested within 1-5 days. All tests were 2 trials of right and left forward splits. Split flexibility was assessed by measuring the height of the anterior superior iliac spine of the rear leg from the floor. Pelvic posture was controlled by rear leg position. The PPDC treatment was 15 minutes of seated PPDC. The control condition was the same except that leggings were not inflated. Pressures of 5 cells in the leggings were set at factory defaults, 70 mm Hg sequentially. Difference score results indicated statistically significant (p ≤ 0.05) differences by condition and the condition by leg interaction. The rapid acute changes in ROM (PPDC: right 25.3%, left 33.3%; CONT: right 12.2%, left 1.0%) support the premise that changes in ROM were dependent on mechanisms other than tissue structural changes and/or stretch tolerance. PPDC provides a means of rapidly enhancing acute ROM requiring less discomfort and time.

Applying the critical velocity model for an off-season interval training program.

The critical velocity (CV) model offers an opportunity to prescribe and to test empirically different velocity-time (V-t) configurations of high-intensity interval training (HIIT); however, such experiments are lacking. We evaluated a group of competitive, female soccer players (age = 19 ± 1 years, height = 168 ± 6 cm, mass = 61 ± 6 kg) completing 1 of 2 different HIIT regimes: a short group (n = 6) completing higher V and shorter t configurations, and a long group (n = 10) completing lower V, longer t configurations. Both groups trained 2 d·wk for 4 weeks. For each workout, both groups ran at velocities exceeding CV and designed to deplete identical fractional percentages of the finite work capacity above CV (D'). The metrics of CV and D' were evaluated at pretraining and posttraining using the 3-minute all-out exercise test on an indoor track using video digitizing of displacement relative to time. Despite differences in the V-t configurations, both groups increased their CV (+0.22 m·s, +6%) and decreased their D' (-24 m, -13%; p < 0.05). We conclude that 2- to 5-minute HIIT bouts are suitable for increasing CV, in previously trained athletes, but they result in a decline of D'. To increase D', we suggest examining HIIT of intensities that are <2 minutes and >130% of maximum oxygen uptake.

Do the noncaffeine ingredients of energy drinks affect metabolic responses to heavy exercise?

Energy drinks (EDs) such as Red Bull (RB) are marketed to enhance metabolism. Secondary ingredients of EDs (e.g., taurine) have been purported to improve time trial performance; however, little research exists on how such secondary ingredients affect aerobic metabolism during heavy exercise. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of the secondary ingredients of RB on aerobic metabolism during and subsequent to heavy exercise. In double-blind, counterbalanced, and crossover fashion, 8 recreationally trained individuals completed a graded exercise test to determine the gas exchange threshold (GET). Subjects returned on 2 separate occasions and ingested either a 245 ml serving of RB or a control (CTRL) drink with the equivalent caffeine before engaging in two 10-minute constant-load cycling bouts, at an intensity equivalent to GET, with 3 minutes of rest between bouts. Accumulated liters of O2 (10 minutes) were higher for the first bout (17.1 ± 3.5 L) vs. the second bout (16.7 ± 3.5 L) but did not differ between drinks. Similarly, excess postexercise oxygen consumption was higher after the initial bout (RB mean, 2.6 ± 0.85 L; CTRL mean, 2.9 ± 0.90 L) vs. the second bout (RB mean, 1.5 ± 0.85 L; CTRL mean, 1.9 ± 0.87 L) but did not differ between drinks. No differences occurred between drinks for measures of heart rate or rating of perceived exertion. These results indicate that the secondary ingredients contained in a single serving of RB do not augment aerobic metabolism during or subsequent to heavy exercise.

Alternative procedures for the three-minute all-out exercise test.

The cycling 3-minute all-out exercise test (3 MT) provides the measures of critical power (CP) and the curvature constant (W') for the relationship between power and time limit to exhaustion in the severe exercise domain. The original procedures for the 3 MT required a preliminary graded exercise test (GXT) to establish the linear factor and the fixed load for the test. We evaluated a new procedure of establishing the load for the 3 MT using a percentage of body mass (% BM). Fifteen subjects of varied fitness levels completed a custom GXT-verification protocol to establish the gas exchange threshold and V[Combining Dot Above]O2max, a 3 MT using a load derived with the linear factor, and a 3 MT using a % BM. The subjects also completed a subsequent exhaustive bout at 10% above CP. The CP and W' estimated from either protocol did not differ. The CP estimates were consistent (α = 0.97, SEM = 7.1 W, coefficient of variation = 4%); however, W' was less reliable, a finding true of any method of measuring W'. The V[Combining Dot Above]O2 evoked during the 3 MT was lower than the values evoked by the exhaustive GXT-verification bouts and the 10% above CP bout after the 3 MT. All individual V[Combining Dot Above]O2 values in the 10% above CP bout were "≥" values measured in the 3 MT. Our findings indicate that several viable procedures for administering the 3 MT are plausible.

Acute response of high-intensity and traditional resistance exercise on anaerobic power.

Quantifying the maximal work capacity (W') above the aerobic critical power (CP) has emerged as a method for estimating anaerobic work capacity. Slower cadence, lower-load resistance training (RT), colloquially referred to as high-intensity training (HIT), is purported to be a better metabolic stressor than faster cadence higher-load RT, but to date, this belief has not been supported by research. We compared the acute effects of HIT and traditional RT bouts on average power within a 150-second time period (P(150 s)), CP, and W', as measured from a 3-minute all-out exercise test using cycling ergometry (3 MT). Eight recreationally active male subjects (mean ± SD: age 22 ± 2 years, body mass 85 ± 14 kg, and height 18 ± 9 cm) completed a baseline 3 MT 10 repetition maximum testing on leg press and leg extension machines, and post-bout 3 MTs after an HIT (4:2 second cadence) or a traditional RT bout (1:1 second cadence). Measurements of CP from the 3 MTs were similar between the baseline, post-HIT (α = 0.96), and post-traditional RT bouts (α = 0.98). Neither HIT (269.2 ± 51.3 W) nor traditional RT (275.1 ± 51.3 W) evoked depreciations (p > 0.05) in P(150 s) from the baseline (275.1 ± 45.4 W). Moreover, estimates of W' at the baseline (8.3 ± 3.2 kJ) were unaffected (p > 0.05) either by the HIT (7.6 ± 2.3 kJ) or by the traditional RT (8.3 ± 1.3 kJ) bouts. These data indicate that the 4:2 cadence is insufficient to exhaust a person's capacity for high-intensity work. Longer RT durations, either by slower cadences or by multiple sets, are necessary to evoke substantive declines on W' and should be investigated.

Gas exchange threshold and VO2max testing for athletes: an update.

Standardized graded exercise test (GXT) protocols are ineffective for testing endurance athletes. Scientists have called for the abandonment of traditional techniques for corroborating "true" maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max), as measured during a GXT. Instead, a new technique, the verification bout subsequent to the GXT, has emerged for establishing the "true" VO2max. The addition of the verification bout reframes how the GXT should be viewed. In this article, we summarize the methods for developing custom GXT protocols, identifying threshold and interpolating power or outdoor running velocity, and implicating the verification bout.

Effect of hang cleans or squats paired with countermovement vertical jumps on vertical displacement.

Complex training is characterized by pairing resistance exercise with plyometric exercise to exploit the postactivation potentiation (PAP) phenomenon, thereby promising a better training effect. Studies on PAP as measured by human power performances are equivocal. One issue may be the lack of analyses across multiple sets of paired exercises, a common practice used by athletes. We evaluated countermovement vertical jump (CMJ) performance in 19 women, collegiate athletes in 3 of the following trials: (a) CMJs-only, where 1 set of CMJs served as a conditioning exercise, (b) heavy-load, back squats paired with CMJs, and (c) hang cleans paired with CMJs. The CMJ vertical displacement (3-attempt average), as measured with digital video, served as the dependent variable of CMJ performance. Across 3 sets of paired-exercise regimens, CMJ-only depreciated 1.6 cm and CMJ paired with back squats depreciated 2.0 cm (main effect, p < 0.05). Conversely, CMJ paired with hang cleans depreciated 0.30 cm (interaction, p < 0.05). Thus, the best complex training scheme was achieved by pairing CMJs with hang cleans in comparison to back squats or CMJs in and of themselves. Future research on exercise modes of complex training that best help athletes preserve and train with the highest power possible, in a given training session, is warranted.

Reliability analysis of the 3-min all-out exercise test for cycle ergometry.

UNLABELLED: The 3-min all-out exercise test (3 MT) is purported to estimate critical power (CP) and anaerobic work capacity (W') and serve as an exercise mode for measuring maximum oxygen uptake (VO(2max)). Reliability analysis of the 3 MT has been confined to CP, not W', and verification of "true" VO(2max)was exclusive to a graded exercise test (GXT). PURPOSE: We conducted a reliability analysis of the 3 MT and compared VO(2max)values from the 3 MT with a GXT and an exhaustive square-wave verification bout. METHODS: Upon completion of a custom GXT and square-wave verification protocol, 11 subjects of various aerobic powers completed two 3 MTs (separate visits). CP, W', average power during 150 s from the 3 MT, and VO(2max)values were assessed using typical error (TE), coefficient of variation (CV), and intraclass correlation (α). RESULTS: CP (W) (trial 1 = 206 ± 47, trial 2 = 206 ± 42) did not differ between 3 MT trials (P = 0.37) and was reliable (TE = 15 W, CV = 7%, α = 0.93). W' was less reliable (TE = 2864 J, CV = 28%, α = 0.76) but did not alter power-duration estimates from the two 3 MTs (P > 0.05). Variability for VO(2max)(TE (mL·kg(-1)·min(-1)) between the GXT and the verification bout (1.16) was more consistent than the first (2.03) or second (2.69) 3 MT. CONCLUSIONS: The 3 MT yields reliable estimates of CP and consistent estimates of the power-duration relationship. Power for 150 s, in comparison with W', is a more reliable metric of short-term power performance. The square-wave protocol is recommended over the 3 MT for verifying true VO(2max).

High-risk stress fractures: pathogenesis, evaluation, and treatment.

High-risk stress fractures require precise assessment and treatment because of their propensity for delayed union, nonunion, or complete fracture and their resulting disabling complications. Proper diagnosis necessitates a thorough clinical evaluation, centering on the patient's diet and history, particularly the training regimen. For a definitive diagnosis, plain radiography, ultrasound, bone scintigraphy, magnetic resonance imagery (MRI), and computed tomography (CT) are helpful, and each plays a specific role. High-risk stress fractures typically require aggressive treatment such as nonweight-bearing immobilization coupled with therapy and often surgery.

Quantification of lumbar endurance on a backup lumbar extension dynamometer.

We evaluated the reliability of static and dynamic lumbar muscle endurance measurements on a BackUP lumbar extension dynamometer. Sixteen healthy participants (8 male; 8 female) volunteered for this investigation. Fifty percent of each participant's body weight was calculated to determine the weight load utilized for the static (holding time) and dynamic (repetitions) lumbar extension endurance tests. Four separate tests (2 static, 2 dynamic) were conducted with at least a 24-hour rest period between tests. Test-retest intraclass correlations were shown to be high (static lumbar endurance, ICC = 0.92 (p < 0.0005); dynamic lumbar endurance, ICC = 0.93 (p < 0.0005) for both of the performed tests. Our results demonstrated that static and dynamic lumbar endurance can be assessed reliably on a BackUP lumbar extension dynamometer. Key PointsReliability studies that test lumbar endurance on machines that effectively stabilize the pelvis and isolate the lumbar extensors are limited.This is the first study to report reliability measures of static and dynamic lumbar endurance on a BackUP lumbar extension dynamometer.Static and dynamic lumbar endurance on a BackUP lumbar extension dynamometer, which uses a variety of pelvic stabilization mechanisms, can be reliably assessed in apparently healthy individuals.Future research is necessary to examine the reliability of lumbar extension endurance on the BackUP dynamometer in patient populations and validity in various settings.

Slipping Rib Syndrome in a Collegiate Swimmer: A Case Report.

Objective: To present the unique case of a collegiate swimmer who experienced nearly 9 months of unresolved rib pain.Background: A 20-year-old collegiate swimmer was jumping up and down, warming up before a race, when she experienced pain in the area of her left lower rib cage. She completed the event and 2 additional events that day with moderate discomfort. The athlete was evaluated by a certified athletic trainer 3 days postinjury and followed up over the next 9 months with the team physician, a chiropractor, a nonsurgical sports medicine physician, and a thoracic surgeon.Differential Diagnosis: Intercostal strain, oblique strain, fractured rib, somatic dysfunction, hepatosplenic conditions, pleuritic chest pain, slipping rib syndrome.Treatment: The athlete underwent 4 months of conservative treatment (eg, activity modification, ice, ultrasound, hot packs, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) after the injury, independently sought chiropractic intervention (12 treatments) 4 to 6 months postinjury, was referred to physical therapy (10 visits) by a nonsurgical sports medicine physician 6 to 8 months postinjury, and finally underwent surgical intervention 9 months after the onset of the initial symptoms.Uniqueness: Slipping rib syndrome was first described in 1919. However, many health care professionals who are involved with diagnosing and treating athletes and active individuals (eg, athletic trainers, physicians) are relatively unfamiliar with this musculoskeletal condition.Conclusions: It is important for clinicians and team physicians to familiarize themselves with and consider the diagnosis of slipping rib syndrome when assessing and managing individuals with persistent abdominal and/or thoracic pain.

Navicular stress fractures in identical twin runners: high-risk fractures require structured treatment.

Tarsal navicular fractures require an accurate and timely diagnosis to prevent costly and disabling complications. Diagnosis requires a thorough clinical evaluation that focuses on the patient's history, particularly his or her training regimen, and diet-as was the case with these 17-year-old girls. Plain radiography, ultrasound, bone scintigraphy, MRI, and CT help make a definitive diagnosis. Treatment of low-risk fractures involves relative rest and cessation of the precipitating activity. High-risk fractures often require non-weight-bearing immobilization, coupled with therapy, and may require surgery.

Influence of cup stacking on hand-eye coordination and reaction time of second-grade students.

Cup stacking has been adopted recently by many physical education programs to enhance rudimentary motor skills such as hand-eye coordination and ambidexterity as well as quickness and concentration; however, no empirical evidence has been published to support these claims. We examined the influence of cup stacking on hand-eye coordination and reaction time of 24 boys and 18 girls in second grade as measured by the Soda Pop and Yardstick tests, respectively. Two physical education classes were randomly assigned as treatment and control groups and were pre- and posttested for hand-eye coordination and reaction time. The treatment group participated in a 5-wk. cup-stacking program. Significant improvements were noted for both hand-eye coordination and reaction time between the pre- and posttest scores for this group but not for the control group. Therefore, cup stacking is indeed effective in enhancing hand-eye coordination and reaction time.