Exploring beliefs around physical activity among older adults in rural Canada.

OBJECTIVE: As physical activity can improve health and reduce the risk of chronic disease, it is important to understand the contributing factors to physical activity engagement among older adults, particularly those living in rural communities to assist in remaining active and healthy as long as possible. The purpose of this study was to gain a deeper understanding of the socio-ecological factors that influence or contribute to physical activity among rural-dwelling older adults in rural Saskatchewan, Canada. METHODS: This qualitative description explored the perceptions of physical activity among older adults living in two rural communities in the Canadian province of Saskatchewan. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 10 adults aged 69-94. Using content analysis techniques, transcribed interview data were coded and categorized. RESULTS: Participants identified socio-ecological elements facilitating physical activity such as improved health, independence, and mobility as well as social cohesion and having opportunities for physical activity. The most common perceived environmental barrier to engaging in physical activity was the fear of falling, particularly on the ice during the winter months. Participants also cited adverse weather conditions, aging (e.g., arthritis), and family members (e.g., encouraged to "take it easy") as barriers to physical activity. CONCLUSION: Hearing directly from older adults who reside in rural Saskatchewan was determined to have the potential to improve awareness of physical activity in rural communities to support the implementation of programs and practices that will facilitate active lifestyles for older adults.

Distinguishing perceived competence and self-efficacy: an example from exercise.

UNLABELLED: This article examined the conceptual and statistical distinction between perceived competence and self-efficacy. Although they are frequently used interchangeably, it is possible that distinguishing them might assist researchers in better understanding their roles in developing enduring adaptive behavior patterns. Perceived competence is conceived in the theoretical framework of self-determination theory and self-efficacy is conceived in the theoretical framework of social-cognitive theory. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to empirically distinguish perceived competence from self-efficacy for exercise. METHOD: Two studies evaluated the independence of perceived competence and self-efficacy in the context of exercise. Using 2 extant instruments with validity and reliability evidence in exercise contexts, the distinctiveness of the 2 constructs was assessed in 2 separate samples (n = 357 middle-aged sedentary adults; n = 247 undergraduate students). RESULTS: Confirmatory factor analysis supported the conceptual and empirical distinction of the 2 constructs. CONCLUSIONS: This study supports the conceptual and statistical distinction of perceived competence from perceived self-efficacy. Applications of these results provide a rationale for more precise future theorizing regarding their respective roles in supporting initiation and maintenance of health behaviors.

Development and impact of exercise self-efficacy types during and after cardiac rehabilitation.

OBJECTIVE: Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death in the developed world. Cardiac rehabilitation (CR) is a comprehensive treatment program centered on structured exercise that has been demonstrated to achieve significant decreases in mortality and morbidity in cardiac patients, yet few patients adhere to exercise post-CR and so fail to maintain any health benefits accrued during rehabilitation. One reason for the lack of adherence might be that CR fails to address the challenges to adherence faced by patients when they no longer have the resources and structure of CR to support them. Self-efficacy (SE) is a robust predictor of behavioral persistence. This study therefore focuses on changes in different types of SE during CR and the relationship of SE to subsequent levels of physical activity. METHOD: A sample of 63 CR patients completed assessments of task, scheduling and coping SE at baseline and the end of CR, as well as self-reported exercise behavior at the end of CR and 1-month post-CR. RESULTS: Task SE (for performing elemental aspects of the behavior) was found to be most changed type of SE during CR and was strongly related to self-reported exercise at the end of CR. However, scheduling SE (for performing the behavior regularly) was most strongly related to self-reported exercise post-CR. CONCLUSIONS: These results are theoretically consistent and suggest that scheduling SE should be targeted during CR to improve post-CR exercise adherence.

Exploring the relationship between socioeconomic status, control beliefs and exercise behavior: a multiple mediator model.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between control beliefs, socioeconomic status and exercise intentions and behavior. Specifically, we examined whether distal and proximal control beliefs mediated the association between socioeconomic status and exercise intentions and behavior. A one time, cross sectional mail out survey (N = 350) was conducted in a large urban Canadian city. Distal (i.e., personal constraints) and proximal (i.e., scheduling self-efficacy) control beliefs mediated the association between socioeconomic status and exercise, explaining approximately 30% of the variance. Proximal control beliefs (i.e., scheduling self-efficacy) partially mediated the association between socioeconomic status and intentions, with the models explaining approximately 50% of the variance. Compared to individuals with lower socioeconomic status, individuals with higher socioeconomic status reported more exercise and stronger intentions to exercise. This was at least partly because higher socioeconomic status respondents reported fewer barriers in their lives, and were more confident to cope with the scheduling demands of exercise.

Understanding physical activity intentions and behavior in postmenopausal women: an application of the theory of planned behavior.

BACKGROUND: In the present paper, we report the social cognitive correlates of physical activity (PA) intentions in postmenopausal women using the two-component theory of planned behavior (TPB) framework. PURPOSE: The primary objective of the present study was to investigate the utility of the TPB in understanding PA behavior in postmenopausal women. METHOD: Postmenopausal women (N = 297) residing in Southern Alberta, Canada completed a mailed questionnaire that assessed self-reported PA and TPB constructs. RESULTS: Data indicated that 67% of postmenopausal women intended to engage in PA behavior consistent with the public health PA guidelines. Multiple regression analysis suggested that the TPB model explained 44% of the variance in PA intentions with instrumental attitude (ß = 0.33), affective attitude (ß = 0.29), descriptive norm (ß = 0.19), and self-efficacy (ß = 0.24) making significant contributions to PA intentions. Postmenopausal women meeting PA guidelines reported higher scores across all TPB variables when compared to women not meeting PA guidelines. Unique behavioral, normative, and control beliefs were also elicited. CONCLUSION: The two-component TPB framework appears to be a useful model for understanding PA intentions and behavior in postmenopausal women. These data can be used in the development and establishment of PA behavior intervention and health promotion materials designed to facilitate PA intentions and behavior in postmenopausal women.

Quality of life and psychosocial health in postmenopausal women achieving public health guidelines for physical activity.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to determine if there are differences in health-related quality of life (HRQoL) and psychosocial health between postmenopausal women who meet public health physical activity (PA) guidelines versus those who do not (ie, self-report) and those women who achieve at least 7,500 steps . day versus those who do not (ie, via objective monitor). METHODS: Postmenopausal women (n = 297) residing in Southern Alberta, Canada, completed a mailed questionnaire that assessed self-reported PA, HRQoL, and psychosocial health outcomes. Total daily steps were assessed with a pedometer via a 3-day step monitoring period. RESULTS: Of the postmenopausal women, 43.1% were meeting public health PA guidelines. A significant multivariate model (Wilks lambda = 0.968, F2,294 = 4.918, P = 0.008) indicated that women achieving public health PA guidelines reported higher HRQoL on both the physical (mean difference [Mdiff] = 2.4, P = 0.008, d [effect size] = 0.31) and mental (Mdiff = 2.3, P = 0.011, d = 0.30) component scales of the RAND-12 compared with women not achieving PA guidelines. Furthermore, women achieving at least 7,500 steps . day-1 indicated significantly higher scores on the physical component scale (Mdiff = 4.33, P < 0.001, d = 0.56) than did women achieving fewer than 7,500 pedometer steps . day-1. CONCLUSIONS: These findings lend support for the health benefits of achieving public health PA guidelines in postmenopause and further the rationale for developing, evaluating, and implementing strategically designed PA behavior change programs for postmenopausal women.

The enduring impact of social factors on exercise tolerance in men attending cardiac rehabilitation.

PURPOSE: This study explored the influence of social support on a prognostic indicator among cardiac patients, exercise tolerance. The relationship of sociodemographic factors to social support was examined, as well as the role of social support as a potential mediator between sociodemographic factors and exercise tolerance. METHODS: Archival data were collected from a sample of 254 men referred to cardiac rehabilitation. An exercise tolerance test was completed upon entry into cardiac rehabilitation, after 14 weeks, and after 9 months. RESULTS: Sociodemographic factors and social support reported upon entry into the cardiac rehabilitation program were related to initial and post-cardiac rehabilitation exercise tolerance, after controlling for admitting diagnoses, medical history, smoking, and perceived severity of illness. Overall, 28% of the variance in exercise tolerance was explained at baseline, 19% at 14 weeks, and 20% at 9 months. Specifically, older individuals had poorer exercise tolerance, whereas those with more income had better exercise tolerance. Social support was positively related to exercise tolerance at all 3 times. Older men reported less social support than younger men did, and those with more income reported more social support. However, social support did not mediate the relationship between sociodemographic factors and exercise tolerance. CONCLUSIONS: Results support the potential use of broad social factors in examining the determinants of prognostic factors for heart patients.

Relationships between exercise regulations and motivational consequences in university students.

The aim of this study was to examine propositions stemming from Self-Determination Theory (SDT) that contend motivational consequences vary as a function of different regulations in the exercise domain. Participants (N = 276; n = 98 men; n = 178 women) completed inventories assessing exercise regulations, current exercise behavior, and behavioral intentions to continue exercising for the next 4 months and the effort and importance associated with exercise participation. Bivariate analyses indicated autonomous exercise regulations (identified and intrinsic) were the strongest correlates of each motivational consequence across both sexes, and introjected regulation was positively associated with exercise consequences in women. Simultaneous multiple regression analyses indicated that exercise regulations accounted for a sizeable portion of the variance across each motivational consequence in both sexes (R2adj values ranged from .20 to .53). Both regression and structure coefficients revealed that introjected regulation was a stronger motivational force in women than men, and identified regulation was the most important predictor of all three motivational consequences in both sexes. Collectively, these findings suggest that exercise regulations differentially predict motivational consequences across sexes, and future research using this theoretical framework for examining motivational issues pertinent to the exercise domain appears warranted.

Is the theory of planned behavior a useful framework for understanding exercise adherence during phase II cardiac rehabilitation?

PURPOSE: This study evaluated the theory of planned behavior (TPB) as a framework for understanding exercise adherence during phase II cardiac rehabilitation (CR). METHODS: A total of 215 patients completed a baseline questionnaire that included the TPB constructs and past exercise. Exercise adherence was measured via program attendance during phase II CR. RESULTS: Hierarchic regression analyses indicated that attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control (PBC) explained 30% of the variance in exercise intention, with attitude, subjective norm, and PBC each making significant unique contributions to intention. Furthermore, exercise intention explained 12% of the variance in exercise adherence. Finally, the behavioral, normative, and control beliefs provided novel information concerning why patients in phase II CR hold certain attitudes, subjective norms, PBC, and exercise intentions. CONCLUSION: Results of the present study provide evidence that the TPB is a useful framework for understanding exercise intentions and adherence during phase II CR.

An experimental investigation of the relation between catastrophizing and activity intolerance.

The present study examined the value of a measure of catastrophizing as a predictor of activity intolerance in response to delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). A sample of 50 (17 men, 33 women) sedentary undergraduates participated in an exercise protocol designed to induce muscle soreness and were asked to return 2 days later to perform the same physical maneuvers. Participants performed five strength exercises that emphasized the eccentric component of the muscle contraction in order to induce DOMS. Dependent variables of interest were the proportion reduction in total weight lifted, and the number of repetitions. Analyses revealed that catastrophizing, assessed prior to the first exercise bout, was significantly correlated with negative mood, pain and with reduction in weight lifted. Regression analyses revealed that catastrophizing predicted reductions in weight lifted even after controlling for pain and negative mood. These findings extend previous research in demonstrating that catastrophizing is associated with objective indices of activity intolerance associated with pain. Implications of these findings for understanding pain-related disability are addressed.