Computational Studies of the Photodegradation Mechanism of the Highly Phototoxic Agent Benoxaprofen.

Computational quantum chemistry within the density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent density functional theory (TD-DFT) framework is used to investigate the photodegradation mechanism as well as the photochemical and photophysical properties of benoxaprofen (BP), a non steroid anti-inflammatory molecule (2-[2-(4-chlorophenyl)-1,3-benzoxazol-5-yl] propanoic acid). BP is a highly phototoxic agent that causes cutaneous phototoxicity shortly after its administration. On the grounds of concern about serious side effects, especially hepatotoxicity, it was withdrawn from the world market after only 2 years of its release. Our study shows that the drug has the capability to absorb radiation in the UV region, mainly between 300 and 340 nm, and undergoes spontaneous photoinduced decarboxylation from the triplet state. It shows very similar photochemical properties to the highly photolabile non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) ketoprofen, suprofen, and tiaprofenic acid. Like ketoprofen, BP can also decarboxylate from excited singlet states by overcoming low energy barriers. The differences in molecular orbital (highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO)) distributions between the neutral and deprotonated BP, their absorption spectra, and the energetics and fate of various photoproducts produced throughout the photodegradation are discussed. Initiation and termination of decarboxylated BP radical species and initiation of propagating lipid peroxidation reactions due to the addition of molecular oxygen giving rise to the corresponding peroxyl radical are also explored in detail.

Photodegradation mechanism of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs containing thiophene moieties: suprofen and tiaprofenic acid.

The photodegradation of nonsteroid anti-inflammatory drugs suprofen, 2-[4-(2-thienoyl)phenyl]propionic acid, and tiaprofenic acid, 2-(5-benzoyl-2-thienyl)propanoic acid, is studied by means of density functional theory. Besides the redox properties of the neutral species, we report on absorption spectra and degradation pathways involving excitation, intersystem crossing to the T(1) state, and spontaneous decarboxylation of the deprotonated species of each drug. The energetics and properties of the suprofen and tiaprofenic acid systems are found to be very similar to those of the highly photolabile benzyl analogue ketoprofen. Mechanisms leading to the formation of a closed-shell decarboxylated ethyl species, as well as peroxyl radicals capable of initiating lipid peroxidation reactions, are discussed.

Theoretical assessment of norfloxacin redox and photochemistry.

Norfloxacin, 1-ethyl-6-fluoro-1,4-dihydo-4-oxo-7-(1-piperazinyl)-3-quinolinecarboxylic acid, NOR, is an antibiotic drug from the fluoroquinoline family. The different protonation states of this drug formed throughout the pH range is studied by means of density functional theory (DFT) and the spectra of the NOR species computed using time-dependent DFT. Details about their photochemistry are obtained from investigating the highest occupied and lowest unoccupied molecular orbitals. The predominant species under physiological pH, the zwitterion, is the most photoliable one, capable of producing singlet oxygen or/and superoxide radical anions from its triplet state. In addition, the main photodegradation step, defluorination, occurs more easily from this species compared with the other forms. The defluorination from the excited triplet state requires passing a barrier of 16.3 kcal/mol in the case of the zwitterion. The neutral and cationic forms display higher transition barriers, whereas the reaction path of defluorination is completely endothermic for the anionic species. The theoretical results obtained herein are in line with previous experimental data.

Photodegradation mechanism of the common non-steroid anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac and its carbazole photoproduct.

Diclofenac (DF) is a widely used non-steroid anti-inflammatory drug, associated with a range of side effects. The phototoxicity of DF is studied herein employing computational quantum chemistry at the B3LYP/6-31G(d,p) level of theory. The results show that the drug readily absorbs radiation from the UV-region. The deprotonated form spontaneously dechlorinates from its triplet state leading to ring closure and formation of an active photoproduct: chlorocarbazole acetic acid, CCA. The formed CCA is also photodegraded easily from its deprotonated triplet state. Photodegradation routes of deprotonated CCA are decarboxylation (barrier less than 4.5 kcal mol(-1)) and dechlorination (barrier around 6.2 kcal mol(-1)). The energy barrier required for dechlorination to take place from the neutral from is about 20 kcal mol(-1). The differences between the molecular orbitals of the neutral and the deprotonated forms of DF and CCA and spectra obtained using time-dependent density-functional theory (TD-DFT), in addition to the different radical and oxygenated intermediate species formed during the photodegradation mechanism, are discussed in more detail. The theoretical results obtained herein are in line with the experimental results available to date.

Theoretical study of the phototoxicity of naproxen and the active form of nabumetone.

Density functional theory using the hybrid functional B3LYP has been employed in order to study the mechanisms of photoinduced decomposition of the closely related nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs naproxen (NP) and 6-methoxy-2-naphthylacetic acid (MNAA; the active form of nabumetone). The photochemical properties and computed energies of various species obtained in this study show that both drugs dominate in their deprotonated forms at physiological pH. The deprotonated acids are unable to decarboxylate from their excited singlets; instead, they decarboxylate from their first excited triplet states with high efficiency, overcoming energy barriers less than 3 and 1 kcal/mol for MNAA and NP, respectively. The ultraviolet and visible spectra of the neutral, deprotonated, and decarboxylated moieties of MNAA and NP are more-or-less similar but with higher probabilites (oscillator strength) for the latter. This fact, as well as the higher reactivity of NP, is explained in terms of the electron-donating effect of the additional methyl group present in NP. Singlet oxygen, superoxide radical anion, and corresponding peroxyl radical species are expected to be formed in different steps throughout the proposed photodegradation pathways of both drugs, which give rise to their effects on biomolecules, for example, lipid peroxidation.

Theoretical study of ibuprofen phototoxicity.

The photochemical properties and degradation of the common nonsteroid anti-inflammatory drug ibuprofen is studied by means of hybrid density functional theory. Computed energies and properties of various species show that the deprotonated form dominates at physiological pH, and that the species will not be able to decarboxylate from a singlet excited state. Instead, decarboxylation will occur, with very high efficiency, provided the deprotonated compound can undergo intersystem crossing from an excited singlet to its excited triplet state. In the triplet state, the C-C bond connecting the carboxyl group is elongated, and the CO2 moiety detaches with a free energy barrier of less than 0.5 kcal/mol. Depending on the local environment, the decarboxylated product can then either be quenched through intersystem crossing (involving the possible formation of singlet oxygen) and protonation, or serve as an efficient source for superoxide anions and the formation of a peroxyl radical that will initiate lipid peroxidation.

Theoretical assessment of naphazoline redoxchemistry and photochemistry.

The imidazoline derivative naphazoline (2-(1-naphtylmethyl)-2-imidazoline) is an alpha2-adrenergic agonist used as non-prescription eye and nasal preparations. Besides its functionality in generating vascoconstriction and decongestion in the patient, the toxicity, ROS generating capability, and recently also possible antioxidant capacity of the compound have been reported in the literature. In the current work the structural and electronic features of the drug are explored, using computational chemical tools. Electron affinities, ionization potentials, and excitation energies are reported, as well as charge and spin distributions of various forms of the drug. The difference in photochemical behavior between the protonated and unprotonated (basic) species is explained by the molecular orbital distributions, allowing for efficient excitation quenching in the basic structure but clear naphthalene to imidazolene charge transfer upon HOMO--> LUMO excitation in the protonated form, enabling larger intersystem crossing capability to the imidazole localized excited triplet and a resulting higher singlet oxygen quantum yield.

Mechanism of photoinduced decomposition of ketoprofen.

UV-induced decarboxylation of the NSAID ketoprofen, followed by activation of molecular oxygen or formation of a decarboxylated peroxide adduct, is explored using computational quantum chemistry. The excited energy surfaces reveal that the neutral species will not decarboxylate, whereas the deprotonated acid decarboxylates spontaneously in the triplet state, and with an associated 3-5 kcal/mol barrier from several low-lying excited singlet states. The observed long lifetimes of the decarboxylated anion is explained in terms of the high stability of the triplet benzoyl ethyl species with protonated carbonylic oxygen, from which there is no obvious decay channel. Mechanisms for the generation of singlet oxygen and superoxide are discussed in detail. Addition of molecular oxygen to give the corresponding peroxyl radical capable of initiating propagating lipid peroxidation reactions is also explored. The computed data explains all features of the observed experimental observations made to date on the photodegradation of ketoprofen.