Stable non-covalent labeling of layered silicate nanoparticles for biological imaging.

Layered silicate nanoparticles (LSN) are widely used in industrial applications and consumer products. They also have potential benefits in biomedical applications such as implantable devices and for drug delivery. To study how nanomaterials interact with cells and tissues, techniques to track and quantify their movement through different biological compartments are essential. While radiolabels can be very sensitive, particularly for in vivo studies, fluorescent labeling has been preferred in recent years because of the array of methods available to image and quantify fluorescent nanoparticles. However, labeling can be problematic, especially if it alters the physical properties of the nanomaterial. Herein is described a novel non-covalent labeling technique for LSN using readily available fluorescent dimeric cyanine dyes without the need to use excess amounts of dye to achieve labeling, or the need for removal of unbound dye. The approach utilizes the cationic binding properties of layered silicate clays and the multiple quaternary nitrogens associated with the dyes. Preparation of YOYO-1 labeled LSN with optimal dispersion in aqueous media is presented. The utilization of the labeled particles is then demonstrated in cell binding and uptake studies using flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. The labeled LSN are highly fluorescent, stable and exhibit identical physical properties with respect to the unlabeled nanoparticles. The general approach described here is applicable to other cyanine dyes and may be utilized more widely for labeling nanoparticles that comprise a crystalline plate structure with a high binding capacity.

Cryptic epitopes of albumin determine mononuclear phagocyte system clearance of nanomaterials.

While plasma proteins can influence the physicochemical properties of nanoparticles, the adsorption of protein to the surface of nanomaterials can also alter the structure and function of the protein. Here, we show that plasma proteins form a hard corona around synthetic layered silicate nanoparticles (LSN) and that one of the principle proteins is serum albumin. The protein corona was required for recognition of the nanoparticles by scavenger receptors, a major receptor family associated with the mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS). Albumin alone could direct nanoparticle uptake by human macrophages, which involved class A but not class B scavenger receptors. Upon binding to LSN, albumin unfolded to reveal a cryptic epitope that could also be exposed by heat denaturation. This work provides an understanding of how albumin, and possibly other proteins, can promote nanomaterial recognition by the MPS without albumin requiring chemical modification for scavenger receptor recognition. These findings also demonstrate an additional function for albumin in vivo.

Differential plasma protein binding to metal oxide nanoparticles.

Nanoparticles rapidly interact with the proteins present in biological fluids, such as blood. The proteins that are adsorbed onto the surface potentially dictate the biokinetics of the nanomaterials and their fate in vivo. Using nanoparticles with different sizes and surface characteristics, studies have reported the effects of physicochemical properties on the composition of adsorbed plasma proteins. However, to date, few studies have been conducted focusing on the nanoparticles that are commonly exposed to the general public, such as the metal oxides. Using previously established ultracentrifugation approaches, two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometry, the current study investigated the binding of human plasma proteins to commercially available titanium dioxide, silicon dioxide and zinc oxide nanoparticles. We found that, despite these particles having similar surface charges in buffer, they bound different plasma proteins. For TiO2, the shape of the nanoparticles was also an important determinant of protein binding. Agglomeration in water was observed for all of the nanoparticles and both TiO2 and ZnO further agglomerated in biological media. This led to an increase in the amount and number of different proteins bound to these nanoparticles. Proteins with important biological functions were identified, including immunoglobulins, lipoproteins, acute-phase proteins and proteins involved in complement pathways and coagulation. These results provide important insights into which human plasma proteins bind to particular metal oxide nanoparticles. Because protein absorption to nanoparticles may determine their interaction with cells and tissues in vivo, understanding how and why plasma proteins are adsorbed to these particles may be important for understanding their biological responses.

SERS of semiconducting nanoparticles (TiO(2) hybrid composites).

Raman scattering of molecules adsorbed on the surface of TiO(2) nanoparticles was investigated. We find strong enhancement of Raman scattering in hybrid composites that exhibit charge transfer absorption with TiO(2) nanoparticles. An enhancement factor up to approximately 10(3) was observed in the solutions containing TiO(2) nanoparticles and biomolecules, including the important class of neurotransmitters such as dopamine and dopac (3,4-dihydroxy-phenylacetic acid). Only selected vibrations are enhanced, indicating molecular specificity due to distinct binding and orientation of the biomolecules coupled to the TiO(2) surface. All enhanced modes are associated with the asymmetric vibrations of attached molecules that lower the symmetry of the charge transfer complex. The intensity and the energy of selected vibrations are dependent on the size and shape of nanoparticle support. Moreover, we show that localization of the charge in quantized nanoparticles (2 nm), demonstrated as the blue shift of particle absorption, diminishes SERS enhancement. Importantly, the smallest concentration of adsorbed molecules shows the largest Raman enhancements suggesting the possibility for high sensitivity of this system in the detection of biomolecules that form a charge transfer complex with metal oxide nanoparticles. The wavelength-dependent properties of a hybrid composite suggest a Raman resonant state. Adsorbed molecules that do not show a charge transfer complex show weak enhancements probably due to the dielectric cavity effect.

A comparative study of single-walled carbon nanotube purification techniques using Raman spectroscopy.

Raman spectroscopy has been utilized to show the increase of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) content in commercial grade samples synthesized by the chemical vapour deposition (CVD) technique with a minimization of impurities using both hydrochloric acid treatment and surfactant purification. Surfactant purification methods proved to be the most effective, resulting in a three-fold increase in the percentage of SWCNTs present in the purified product as determined by Raman spectroscopy.

A spectroscopic and thermoanalytical study of the mineral hoganite.

A comprehensive spectroscopic analysis consisting of Raman, infrared (IR) and near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy was undertaken on the newly discovered mineral hoganite (copper(II) acetate monohydrate (Cu(CH(3)COO)(2) x H(2)O)). Assignments of vibrational bands due to the acetate anion have been made in all three forms of spectroscopy. Thermal analysis of the mineral was undertaken to follow its decomposition under a nitrogen atmosphere. Two major mass loss steps at 90 and approximately 220 degrees C were revealed. These mass losses correspond very well to firstly, the loss of a single water molecule, and then the loss of the acetate anion which quickly decomposes to form carbon dioxide and water.

A spectroscopic study of the mineral paceite (calcium acetate).

A comprehensive spectroscopic analysis consisting of Raman, infrared (IR) and near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy was undertaken on two forms of calcium acetate with differing degrees of hydration. Monohydrate (Ca(CH(3)COO)(2).H(2)O) and half-hydrate (Ca(CH(3)COO)(2).0.5H(2)O) species were analysed. Assignments of vibrational bands due to the acetate anion have been made in all three forms of spectroscopy. Thermal analysis of the mineral was undertaken to follow its decomposition under a nitrogen atmosphere. Three major mass loss steps at approximately 120, 400 and 600 degrees C were revealed. These mass losses correspond very well to firstly, the loss of co-ordinated water molecules, and then the loss of water from the acetate anion, followed by finally the loss of carbon dioxide from the carbonate mineral to form a stable calcium oxide.

Nitrate absorption through hydrotalcite reformation.

Thermally activated hydrotalcite based upon a Zn/Al hydrotalcite with carbonate in the interlayer has been used to remove nitrate anions from an aqueous solution resulting in the reformation of a hydrotalcite with a mixture of nitrate and carbonate in the interlayer. X-ray diffraction of the reformed hydrotalcites with a d(003) spacing of 7.60 A shows that the nitrate anion is removed within a 30 min period. Raman spectroscopy shows that two types of nitrate anions exist in the reformed hydrotalcite (a) nitrate bonded to the 'brucite-like' hydrotalcite surface and (b) aquated nitrate anion in the interlayer. Kinetically the nitrate is replaced by the carbonate anion over a 21 h period. Two types of carbonate anions are observed. This research shows that the reformation of a thermally activated hydrotalcite can be used to remove anions such as nitrate from aqueous systems.