Genetic diversity and population structure of Urochloa grass accessions from Tanzania using simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers.

Urochloa (syn.-Brachiaria s.s.) is one of the most important tropical forages that transformed livestock industries in Australia and South America. Farmers in Africa are increasingly interested in growing Urochloa to support the burgeoning livestock business, but the lack of cultivars adapted to African environments has been a major challenge. Therefore, this study examines genetic diversity of Tanzanian Urochloa accessions to provide essential information for establishing a Urochloa breeding program in Africa. A total of 36 historical Urochloa accessions initially collected from Tanzania in 1985 were analyzed for genetic variation using 24 SSR markers along with six South American commercial cultivars. These markers detected 407 alleles in the 36 Tanzania accessions and 6 commercial cultivars. Markers were highly informative with an average polymorphic information content of 0.79. The analysis of molecular variance revealed high genetic variation within individual accessions in a species (92%), fixation index of 0.05 and gene flow estimate of 4.77 showed a low genetic differentiation and a high level of gene flow among populations. An unweighted neighbor-joining tree grouped the 36 accessions and six commercial cultivars into three main clusters. The clustering of test accessions did not follow geographical origin. Similarly, population structure analysis grouped the 42 tested genotypes into three major gene pools. The results showed the Urochloa brizantha (A. Rich.) Stapf population has the highest genetic diversity (I = 0.94) with high utility in the Urochloa breeding and conservation program. As the Urochloa accessions analyzed in this study represented only 3 of 31 regions of Tanzania, further collection and characterization of materials from wider geographical areas are necessary to comprehend the whole Urochloa diversity in Tanzania.

Antiplasmodial potential of traditional phytotherapy of some remedies used in treatment of malaria in Meru-Tharaka Nithi County of Kenya.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Medicinal plants play a major role in many communities across the world, in the treatment and prevention of disease and the promotion of general health. The aim of the study was to escalate documentation from an earlier study of medicinal plants, traditionally used to combat malaria by the Ameru community of Imenti Forest area and Gatunga in Eastern Region of Kenya, and validate their ethnopharmacological claims by evaluating their antiplasmodial efficacies. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study was carried out in Meru County at Imenti Forest Game Reserve and in Tharaka Nithi County at Gatunga. Traditional health practitioners (THP) were interviewed with a standard questionnaire to obtain information on medicinal plants traditionally used for management of malaria. Group interviews were also held among THPs and members of the community. The antiplasmodial activities of the crude extracts against chloroquine sensitive (D6) and resistant (W2) Plasmodium falciparum were determined using the semi-automated micro-dilution technique that measures the ability of the extracts to inhibit the incorporation of (G-3H) hypoxanthine into the malaria parasite. RESULTS: Ninety nine (99) species in eighty one (81) genera and forty five (45) families were documented and evaluated for in vitro antiplasmodial activity. Compositae, Fabaceae, Meliceae, Rubiaceae, Rutaceae and Verbenaceae had the highest number of species mentioned in treatment of malaria in Meru/Tharaka Nithi study area. Twenty four (24.2%) species showed antiplasmodial efficacy of IC50 ≤ 5 µg/ml and were considered to have potential for isolation of antimalarial compounds. Eight plant (8) species with moderate antiplasmodial activity namely; Cordia africana, Commiphora africana, Elaeodendron buchananii, Gomphocarpus semilunatus, Tarena graveolens, Plectranthus igniarius, Acacia senegal and Ziziphus abyssinica were documented from this region for the first time for the treatment of malaria. The antiplasmodial activity of MeOH root bark extract of Maytenus obtusifolia was very promising (IC50 < 1.9 µg/ml) and this is the first report on traditional use of M. obtusifolia for treatment of malaria and antimalarial activity. CONCLUSIONS: The results seem to indicate that ethnopharmacological inquiry used in search for new herbal remedies as predictive and could be used as the basis for search of new active principles. Eight plant (8) species are documented from this region for the first time for the treatment of malaria. This is the first report on traditional use of M. obtusifolia for treatment of malaria and evaluation of its antiplasmodial activity.

Antiplasmodial potential of traditional antimalarial phytotherapy remedies used by the Kwale community of the Kenyan Coast.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: In Kenya, 22 million people are at risk of malaria, 70% of them are in rural areas and most of these people use traditional plant based medicines to treat malaria. The aim of the study was to escalate documentation, from an earlier study of medicinal plants, traditionally used to treat malaria by the Digo community of Kwale County, taking cognizance of their pharmacological information by evaluating their antiplasmodial efficacies. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study was carried out in Kwale County at Shimba Hills Game Reserve and adjoining part of Kinango. Traditional health practitioners (THP) were interviewed with a standard questionnaire to obtain information on medicinal plants traditionally used for management of malaria. Group interviews were also held among THPs and members of the community. The plant samples collected were tested for antiplasmodial activity against chloroquine sensitive (D6) and resistant (W2) Plasmodium falciparum using the ability of extracts, prepared from the plant species, to inhibit the incorporation of [G-3H] hypoxanthine into the malaria parasites. RESULTS: Fifty seven (57) species in forty eight (48) genera and thirty (30) families were documented and evaluated for in vitro antiplasmodial activity. Apocynaceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Rubiaceae families had each about 12% of the plant species reported as antimalarial remedy and represented the species that are most commonly used. Twelve species (21.1%) showed antiplasmodial efficacy of IC50<5µg/ml and these were Boscia salicifolia, Cissampelos mucronata, Clerodendrum myricoides, Commiphora schimperi, Flueggea virosa, Maytenus undata, Maytenus senegalensis, Maytenus putterlickioides, Vernonia amygdalina, Warburgia stuhlmannii, Zanthoxylum chalybeum and Tabernaemontana pachysiphon. CONCLUSIONS: These results seem to indicate that ethnopharmacological inquiry used in search for new herbal remedies as predictive and could form the basis of an ethnopharmacopoeia and search for new active principles. This is the first report on traditional use of T. pachysiphon for malaria and its antiplasmodial activity.

AWARENESS AND PRACTICE ON BIOMEDICAL WASTE MANAGEMENT AMONG HEALTH CARE PERSONNEL IN KENYATTA NATIONAL HOSPITAL.

BACKGROUND: The proper handling and disposal of Bio-medical waste (BMW) is very imperative. There are well defined set rules for handling BMW worldwide. Unfortunately, laxity and lack of adequate training and awareness in execution of these rules leads to staid health and environment apprehension. OBJECTIVE: To assessthe awareness and practice regarding biomedical waste management among health care personnel in Kenyatta National Hospital (KNH) DESIGN: A cross sectional study design. SETTING: Kenyatta National Hospital SUBJECTS: Doctors, Nurses and support staff who have worked in the institution for more than six months and consented were evaluated. RESULTS: The total level of awareness on biomedical waste management among health care personnel was found to be 60%. The doctors scored 51% which was the lowest score the nurses scored 65% which was the highest score while the support staff scored 55%. As for the practices, the results showed that most of the healthcare personnel were aware of the biomedical waste management practices in the hospital with the lowest scores emerging from doctors and this shows no association between knowledge on biomedical waste management and education. When asked how they would describe the control of waste management in the institution 59% said good and 40% said fair while 1% said poor. CONCLUSION: The present study therefore outlines the gap between biomedical waste management rules and inadequate state of execution and awareness in practice. It is recommended that enhancement be done to the already existing Hospital Infection Control Committee to supervise all the aspects of biomedical waste management. Periodical training programmes for biomedical waste handling and disposal to the staff with focus on doctors is highlighted.

Antimicrobial activity of pentacyclic triterpenes isolated from Acacia mellifera.

Acacia mellifera has been used widely in traditional African medicines against various diseases. Among the Kipsigis community of Kenya, water extracts from the plant is used for the treatment of skin diseases, coughs and gastrointestinal ailments. The aim of the study was to provide scientific rationale for the use of the plant in traditional medicine through bioassay-guided fractionation of A. mellifera stem bark. Bioactivity testing was done against selected microbes using disc diffusion technique as outlined in Clinical Laboratory Standard Institute (CLSI). Structure elucidation of the isolated compounds was based primarily on 1D and 2D NMR analyses, including HMQC, HMBC, and NOESY correlations. Fractionation yielded three triterpenoids; (20S)-oxolupane-30-al, (20R)-oxolupane-30-al, and betulinic acid. The three compounds were active against Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923 and only (20S)-oxolupane-30-al against clinical isolate of Microsporum gypseum. The three compounds had no activity against Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Enterococcus feacalis, Candida albicans ATCC 90028, Cryptococcus neoformans, Trichophyton mentagrophyte, Candida krusei, Microsporum gypseum, and Sacharomyces cerevisiae. These results explain and support the use of A. mellifera stem barks for the treatment of infectious diseases in traditional Kenya medicine. It also shows that the antimicrobial activity is concentrated in the triterpenoid fractions.

In Vivo Screening of Antimalarial Activity of Acacia Mellifera (Benth) (Leguminosae) on Plasmodium Berghei in Mice

The activities of total extracts and lupane triterpenes; isolated from the stem bark of Acacia mellifera;were evaluated against Plasmodium berghei strain ANKA in a female Swiss mouse model. Five isolated compounds and the crude extracts were evaluated for antimalarial activity and Quinine hydrochloride was used as a positive control. Only betulin and the methanolic extract produced considerable antimalarial activity in mice infected with P. berghei parasites. This study demonstrated the presence of bioactive agents in Acacia mellifera