Associations between faecal chemical pollutants and hormones in primates inhabiting Kibale National Park, Uganda.

While anthropogenic pollutants are known to be a threat to primates, our understanding of exposure to pollutants in situ and their sub-lethal effects is still limited. We used non-invasive biomonitoring to examine associations between faecal concentrations of 97 chemical pollutants and faecal hormone metabolites of cortisol and oestradiol in four primate species inhabiting Kibale National Park, Uganda (chimpanzees-Pan troglodytes, olive baboons-Papio anubis, red colobus-Piliocolobus tephrosceles and red-tailed monkeys-Cercopithecus ascanius). Across all species (n = 71 samples), results demonstrated positive associations of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) (ß = 0.143, p = 0.020) and organophosphate esters (ß = 0.112, p = 0.003) with cortisol in adult females. Additionally, we observed positive associations of OCPs (ß = 0.192, p = 0.013) and brominated flame retardants (ß = 0.176, p = 0.004) with cortisol in juveniles. Results suggest that cumulative pesticides and flame retardants are disruptive to endocrine function in these populations, which could have implications for development, metabolism and reproduction. Our study further demonstrates that faeces can be an important, non-invasive matrix for examining pollutant-hormone associations in wild primates and other critical wildlife populations.

Feces are Effective Biological Samples for Measuring Pesticides and Flame Retardants in Primates.

The habitats of wild primates are increasingly threatened by surrounding anthropogenic pressures, but little is known about primate exposure to frequently used chemicals. We applied a novel method to simultaneously measure 21 legacy pesticides (OCPs), 29 current use pesticides (CUPs), 47 halogenated flame retardants (HFRs), and 19 organophosphate flame retardants in feces from baboons in the U.S.A., howler monkeys in Costa Rica, and baboons, chimpanzees, red-tailed monkeys, and red colobus in Uganda. The most abundant chemicals were α-hexachlorocyclohexane (α-HCH), ß-hexachlorocyclohexane (ß-HCH), and hexachlorobenzene among OCPs across all sites, chlorpyrifos among CUPs in Costa Rica and Indiana, decabromodiphenylethane (DBDPE) in Costa Rica and Indiana and 2, 2', 4, 4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-47) in Uganda as HFRs, and tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBOEP) as OPFRs across all sites. The detected chemical concentrations were generally higher in red-tailed monkeys and red colobus than in chimpanzees and baboons. Our methods can be used to examine the threat of chemical pollutants to wildlife, which is critical for endangered species where only noninvasive methods can be used.

Atmospheric Occurrence of Legacy Pesticides, Current Use Pesticides, and Flame Retardants in and around Protected Areas in Costa Rica and Uganda.

Protected areas have developed alongside intensive changes in land use and human settlements in the neighboring landscape. Here, we investigated the occurrence of 21 organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), 14 current use pesticides (CUPs), 47 halogenated flame retardants (HFRs), and 19 organophosphate esters (OPEs) in air around Las Cruces (LC) and La Selva (LS) Biological Stations, Costa Rica, and Kibale National Park (KNP), Uganda using passive air samplers (PAS) with polyurethane foam (PUF) discs (PAS-PUF). Significantly higher concentrations of CUPs were observed around LS, while LC had a higher concentration of OCPs. Land use analysis indicated that LS had a higher fraction of agriculture than LC (33% vs 14%), suggesting the higher CUPs concentration at LS was related to pesticide intensive crops, while higher OCPs concentration at LC may be attributed to the area's long agricultural history characterized by small-scale subsistence farming or long-range transport. In Uganda, CUPs and OCPs were generally lower than in Costa Rica, but high concentrations of HFRs were observed inside KNP, possibly due to human activity at research camps near the protected forest. This is the first study that documented the occurrence of anthropogenic chemicals in the air at protected areas with tropical forests.