Trade of aquatic animals and aquatic animal products: the use of OIE international standards for devising sanitary measures.

The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) develops international standards for the prevention, detection and control of aquatic animal diseases as well as the safe international trade of amphibians, crustaceans, fish, molluscs and their products. The Competent Authorities of importing and exporting countries should implement the OIE international standards by adopting the required legislation as this provides the basis for setting sanitary measures that ensure safe international trade, while avoiding unjustified sanitary barriers to trade. Based on an analysis of legislation notified by countries to the World Trade Organization (WTO) in the context of the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement), the authors explore how and to what extent Member Countries use the OIE international standards when developing sanitary measures. The study develops an analytical framework for collecting and presenting countries' legislation to determine if a direct link can be demonstrated between national legislation and OIE international standards. Results show that OIE international standards are implemented through different categories of legislation which range from more general (those providing a general sanitary framework) to more specific (those setting requirements for the import of aquatic animals and aquatic animal products). However, the study illustrates the difficulty of identifying direct links between countries' legislation and OIE international standards. Nonetheless, this study is the first step in the design of an approach to better understand how OIE international standards are used by Member Countries to devise sanitary measures in the context of international trade. It further notes that increased transparency of national sanitary legislation can facilitate efforts to improve knowledge on the implementation of OIE international standards.

L'Organisation mondiale de la santé animale (OIE) prépare et publie des normes internationales relatives à la prévention, la détection et le contrôle des maladies des animaux aquatiques et à la sécurité sanitaire des échanges internationaux d'amphibiens, crustacés, poissons, mollusques et produits issus de ces espèces. Les Autorités compétentes des pays importateurs et exportateurs doivent procéder à la mise en œuvre de ces normes par le biais d'une législation appropriée, celle-ci fournissant la base pour élaborer des mesures sanitaires destinées à garantir la sécurité sanitaire des échanges internationaux et à éviter l'imposition d'obstacles injustifiés au commerce. À partir d'une analyse des notifications adressées par les pays à l'Organisation mondiale du commerce (OMC) concernant les dispositions de leur législation relevant de l'Accord sur l'application des mesures sanitaires et phytosanitaires (Accord SPS), les auteurs explorent comment et dans quelles mesures les Pays membres utilisent les normes internationales de l'OIE pour développer des mesures sanitaires. Un cadre analytique a été élaboré pour les besoins de cette étude afin de recueillir et de traiter les données relatives à la législation des pays en vue de déterminer l'existence ou non d'un lien direct entre la législation nationale et les normes internationales de l'OIE. Les résultats montrent que la mise en œuvre des normes internationales de l'OIE fait appel à diverses catégories d'instruments législatifs qui vont du plus général (ceux qui fournissent un cadre sanitaire général) au plus spécifique (dispositions relatives aux importations d'animaux aquatiques et de leurs produits). Cette étude fait néanmoins état des difficultés à déceler un lien direct entre la législation d'un pays et les normes internationales de l'OIE. Malgré tout, cette étude marque une première étape dans l'élaboration d'une approche destinée à mieux comprendre comment les Pays membres utilisent les normes internationales de l'OIE lorsqu'ils instaurent des mesures sanitaires dans le contexte des échanges internationaux. Elle fait également ressortir que l'amélioration de la transparence de la législation sanitaire d'un pays est un élément facilitateur pour mieux comprendre tous les aspects de la mise en œuvre des normes internationales de l'OIE.

La Organización Mundial de Sanidad Animal (OIE) elabora normas internacionales que regulan la prevención, la detección y el control de las enfermedades de los animales acuáticos, así como la seguridad del comercio internacional de anfibios, crustáceos, peces y moluscos y los productos derivados de ellos. Las autoridades competentes de los países importadores y exportadores deben aplicar las normas internacionales de la OIE adoptando la legislación necesaria, pues esta sienta las bases para establecer medidas sanitarias que garanticen un comercio internacional seguro, evitando a la vez toda barrera sanitaria al comercio que no esté justificada. Los autores, partiendo del análisis de los textos legislativos comunicados por los países a la Organización Mundial del Comercio (OMC) como parte del Acuerdo sobre la Aplicación de Medidas Sanitarias y Fitosanitarias (Acuerdo MSF), explican cómo y en qué medida los Países Miembros utilizan las normas internacionales de la OIE al definir medidas sanitarias. Como parte del estudio se elaboró un marco analítico destinado a recopilar y presentar la legislación de los países y a determinar, a partir de ahí, si existe un nexo directo entre la legislación nacional y las normas internacionales de la OIE. Los resultados demuestran que las normas internacionales de la OIE se implementan mediante diferentes categorías de instrumentos legales, que van desde lo más genérico (textos que sientan un marco sanitario general) hasta lo más específico (textos que establecen requisitos para importar animales acuáticos y sus derivados). Sin embargo, el estudio evidencia también la dificultad de encontrar nexos directos entre la legislación de los países y las normas internacionales de la OIE. Con todo, el estudio aquí presentado supone el primer paso hacia la concepción de un método que ayude a comprender mejor el modo en que los Países Miembros utilizan las normas internacionales de la OIE para definir medidas sanitarias que se apliquen al comercio internacional. Además, pone de manifiesto que un mayor grado de transparencia de la legislación sanitaria nacional puede facilitar los esfuerzos por conocer con mayor profundidad la forma en que se aplican las normas internacionales de la OIE.

Assessment of the safety of aquatic animal commodities for international trade: the OIE Aquatic Animal Health code.

Trading of aquatic animals and aquatic animal products has become increasingly globalized during the last couple of decades. This commodity trade has increased the risk for the spread of aquatic animal pathogens. The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) is recognized as the international standard-setting organization for measures relating to international trade in animals and animal products. In this role, OIE has developed the Aquatic Animal Health Code, which provides health measures to be used by competent authorities of importing and exporting countries to avoid the transfer of agents pathogenic for animals or humans, whilst avoiding unjustified sanitary barriers. An OIE ad hoc group developed criteria for assessing the safety of aquatic animals or aquatic animal products for any purpose from a country, zone or compartment not declared free from a given disease 'X'. The criteria were based on the absence of the pathogenic agent in the traded commodity or inactivation of the pathogenic agent by the commercial processing used to produce the commodity. The group also developed criteria to assess the safety of aquatic animals or aquatic animal products for retail trade for human consumption from potentially infected areas. Such commodities were assessed considering the form and presentation of the product, the expected volume of waste tissues generated by the consumer and the likely presence of viable pathogenic agent in the waste. The ad hoc group applied the criteria to commodities listed in the individual disease chapters of the Aquatic Animal Health Code (2008 edition). Revised lists of commodities for which no additional measures should be required by the importing countries regardless of the status for disease X of the exporting country were developed and adopted by the OIE World Assembly of Delegates in May 2011. The rationale of the criteria and their application will be explained and demonstrated using examples.

The challenges of good governance in the aquatic animal health sector.

Animal health is fundamental to efficient animal production and, therefore, to food security and human health. This holds true for both terrestrial and aquatic animals. Although partnership between producers and governmental services is vital for effective animal health programmes, many key activities are directly carried out by governmental services. Noting the need to improve the governance of such services in many developing countries, the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), using the OIE Tool for the Evaluation of Performance of Veterinary Services, conducts assessments of Veterinary Services and Aquatic Animal Health Services (AAHS) to help strengthen governance and support more effective delivery of animal health programmes. While good governance and the tools to improve governance in the aquatic animal sector are largely based on the same principles as those that apply in the terrestrial animal sector, there are some specific challenges in the aquatic sector that have a bearing on the governance of services in this area. For example, the aquaculture industry has experienced rapid growth and the use of novel species is increasing; there are important gaps in scientific knowledge on diseases of aquatic animals; there is a need for more information on sustainable production; the level of participation of the veterinary profession in aquatic animal health is low; and there is a lack of standardisation in the training of aquatic animal health professionals. Aquaculture development can be a means of alleviating poverty and hunger in developing countries. However, animal diseases, adverse environmental impacts and food safety risks threaten to limit this development. Strengthening AAHS governance and, in consequence, aquatic animal health programmes, is the best way to ensure a dynamic and sustainable aquaculture sector in future. This paper discusses the specific challenges to AAHS governance and some OIE initiatives to help Member Countries to address them.

Animal production food safety: priority pathogens for standard setting by the World Organisation for Animal Health.

In this short study, expert opinion and a literature review were used to identify the pathogens that should be prioritised by the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) for the development of future standards for animal production food safety. Prioritisation was based on a pathogen's impact on human health and amenability to control using on-farm measures. As the OIE mandate includes alleviation of global poverty, the study focused on developing countries and those with 'in-transition' economies. The regions considered were Eastern Europe, Asia, the Middle East, Africa and South America. Salmonella (from species other than poultry) and pathogenic Escherichia coli were considered to be top priorities. Brucella spp., Echinococcus granulosus and Staphylococcus aureus were also mentioned by experts. As Salmonella, and to a lesser extent pathogenic E. coli, can be controlled by on-farm measures, these pathogens should be considered for prioritisation in future standard setting. On-farm control measures for Brucella spp. will be addressed in 2010-2011 in a review of the OLE Terrestrial Animal/Health Code chapter on brucellosis. In Africa, E. granulosus, the causative agent of hydatidosis, was estimated to have the greatest impact of all pathogens that could potentially be transmitted by food (i.e. via contamination). It was also listed for the Middle East and thought to be of importance by both South American experts consulted. Taenia saginata was thought to be of importance in South America and Africa and by one expert in the Middle East.

Reproductive cycles of farmed female chital deer (Axis axis).

Studies were conducted on chital deer hinds (Axis axis) living in a temperate region to advance the understanding of the patterns of reproduction of a tropical cervid species. The hinds exhibited regular patterns of oestrus cyclicity throughout the year as evidenced by concentrations of serum progesterone monitored over a 14-month period, and detection of behavioural oestrus by vasectomized stags. The mean length of the oestrous cycle was 18.0+/-0.7 days (range, 12-23 days). Profiles of serum progesterone showed concentrations of <0.5 ng mL(-1) at the time of oestrus, which rose to a peak (range 1.5-5.0 ng mL(-1)) about Day 13, and then declined to low concentrations at the next oestrus. Observations following parturition showed that the first detected oestrus occurred at a mean (+/- SEM) time of 26.9+/-3.0 days later for seven of nine hinds. The mean length of the oestrous cycle after the first post-partum oestrus was 16.6+/-1.0 days (range 7-20 days). The presence of a stag may influence the length of the post-partum period in chital deer hinds, and hinds in contact with a stag in this study had a significantly shorter interval from parturition to first ovulation (P<0.01) compared with hinds not in contact with a stag. By 7 weeks post partum a corpus luteum was detected in 93% of hinds. In comparison only 43% of hinds with no stag contact had a corpus luteum by 7 weeks post partum. It is suggested that the tendency towards seasonal calving in the study population may be related more to male than female factors.

Conception rates in European fallow does (Dama dama dama) following intrauterine insemination with frozen-thawed semen from Mesopotamian fallow (Dama dama mesopotamica) and crossbred (Dama dama dama x Dama dama mesopotamica) bucks.

Ninety eight parous fallow does received laparoscopic intrauterine insemination of frozen-thawed semen at one of 2 fixed intervals following oestrus synchronisation treatment. Semen was collected from a Mesopotamian (Dama dama mesopotamica) and a crossbred (F1) (Dama dama dama x Dama dama mesopotamica) fallow buck. Does were inseminated at either 56 or 66 hours after the removal of an intravaginal controlled internal drug releasing device. Eighty eight does received a single straw of frozen-thawed semen containing a total of 50 x 10(6) spermatozoa, while the remaining 10 received split straws containing 25 x 10(6) spermatozoa. Overall, the use of F1 semen containing 50 x 10(6) spermatozoa resulted in a 68% (17/25) conception rate compared with the Mesopotamian semen, which resulted in a 41% (26/63) conception rate. Conceptions were also achieved using 25 x 10(6) spermatozoa of either Mesopotamian or F1 semen (3/8 versus 2/2, respectively). Overall, the conception rate was higher for F1 than Mesopotamian semen (P less than 0.025) and there was a significant interaction with time of insemination (P less than 0.05); for F1 semen there was no difference in conception rate at the 2 insemination times, but for Mesopotamian semen conception was significantly higher (P less than 0.005) following insemination at 66 hours than at 56 hours.