Multiple pathways towards achieving a living income for different types of smallholder tree-crop commodity farmers.

Many sources indicate that smallholder tree-crop commodity farmers are poor, but there is a paucity of data on how many of them are poor and the depth of poverty. The living income concept establishes the net annual income required for a household in a place to afford a decent standard of living. Based on datasets on smallholder cocoa and tea farmers in Ghana, Ivory Coast and Kenya and literature, we conclude that a large proportion of such farmers do not have the potential to earn a living income based on their current situation. Because these farmers typically cultivate small farm sizes and have low capacity to invest and to diversify, there are no silver bullets to move them out of poverty. We present an assessment approach that results in insights into which interventions can be effective in improving the livelihoods of different types of farmers. While it is morally imperative that all households living in poverty are supported to earn a living income, the assessment approach and literature indicate that focussing on short- to medium-term interventions for households with a low likelihood of generating a living income could be: improving food security and health, finding off-farm and alternative employment, and social assistance programmes. In the long term, land governance policies could address land fragmentation and secure rights. Achieving living incomes based on smallholder commodity production requires more discussion and engagement with farmers and their household members and within their communities, coordination between all involved stakeholders, sharing lessons learnt and data.

Comparative Antidiabetic Activity of Aqueous, Ethanol, and Methanol Leaf Extracts of Persea americana and Their Effectiveness in Type 2 Diabetic Rats.

Native to Mexico, Persea americana Mill. (avocado) is a fruit tree whose different parts (leaf, bark, roots, and stone) are used in traditional medicine especially against diabetes mellitus. The aim of this study was to investigate the beneficial effects of 28-day treatment with aqueous, ethanolic, and methanolic leaf extracts on glucose homeostasis in type 2 diabetic mellitus using Wistar rats. Type 2 diabetes was induced with nicotinamide (120 mg/kg, i.p.) and streptozotocin (65 mg/kg, i.p.). After 28 days of treatment, histopathological examination of the pancreas, kidneys, liver, and muscle (tibialis anterior) were realized. Biochemical markers were determined and an intestinal absorption test of D-glucose was performed. All extracts (100 mg/kg/day, p.o.) significantly (p < 0.001) reduced blood glucose level at the 28th day of treatment with a more pronounced effect for methanolic extract. The treatments were well tolerated and induced a restoration of T-CHOL and HDL-C levels compared to the control group. Methanolic extract reduced the AIP (atherogenic index of plasma) by 45%. Histopathological analyzes of the pancreas showed regeneration of islets of Langerhans. Methanolic extract was the most effective in preventing intestinal glucose uptake up to 60.90% in relation to metformin. These results justify the use of this plant in traditional medicine against type 2 diabetes. However, other complementary studies should be done to identify the molecules responsible for this activity and their signaling voice.

Field evidence of selenium bioreduction in a uranium-contaminated aquifer.

Removal of selenium from groundwater was documented during injection of acetate into a uranium-contaminated aquifer near Rifle, Colorado (USA). Bioreduction of aqueous selenium to its elemental form (Se0) concentrated it within mineralized biofilms affixed to tubing used to circulate acetate-amended groundwater. Scanning and transmission electron microscopy revealed close association between Se0 precipitates and cell surfaces, with Se0 aggregates having a diameter of 50-60 nm. Accumulation of Se0 within biofilms occurred over a three-week interval at a rate of c. 9 mg Se0 m(-2) tubing day(-1). Removal was inferred to result from the activity of a mixed microbial community within the biofilms capable of coupling acetate oxidation to the reduction of oxygen, nitrate and selenate. Phylogenetic analysis of the biofilm revealed a community dominated by strains of Dechloromonas sp. and Thauera sp., with isolates exhibiting genetic similarity to the latter known to reduce selenate to Se0. Enrichment cultures of selenate-respiring microorganisms were readily established using Rifle site groundwater and acetate, with cultures dominated by strains closely related to D. aromatica (96-99% similarity). Predominance of Dechloromonas sp. in recovered biofilms and enrichments suggests this microorganism may play a role in the removal of selenium oxyanions present in Se-impacted groundwaters and sediments.

High-density PhyloChip profiling of stimulated aquifer microbial communities reveals a complex response to acetate amendment.

There is increasing interest in harnessing the functional capacities of indigenous microbial communities to transform and remediate a wide range of environmental contaminants. Information about which community members respond to stimulation can guide the interpretation and development of remediation approaches. To comprehensively determine community membership and abundance patterns among a suite of samples associated with uranium bioremediation experiments, we employed a high-density microarray (PhyloChip). Samples were unstimulated, naturally reducing, or collected during Fe(III) (early) and sulfate reduction (late biostimulation) from an acetate re-amended/amended aquifer in Rifle, Colorado, and from laboratory experiments using field-collected materials. Deep community sampling with PhyloChip identified hundreds-to-thousands of operational taxonomic units (OTUs) present during amendment, and revealed close similarity among highly enriched taxa from drill core and groundwater well-deployed column sediment. Overall, phylogenetic data suggested that stimulated community membership was most affected by a carryover effect between annual stimulation events. Nevertheless, OTUs within the Fe(III)- and sulfate-reducing lineages, Desulfuromonadales and Desulfobacterales, were repeatedly stimulated. Less consistent, co-enriched taxa represented additional lineages associated with Fe(III) and sulfate reduction (e.g. Desulfovibrionales; Syntrophobacterales; Peptococcaceae) and autotrophic sulfur oxidation (Sulfurovum; Campylobacterales). Data implies complex membership among highly stimulated taxa and, by inference, biogeochemical responses to acetate, a nonfermentable substrate.

Molecular analysis of the metabolic rates of discrete subsurface populations of sulfate reducers.

Elucidating the in situ metabolic activity of phylogenetically diverse populations of sulfate-reducing microorganisms that populate anoxic sedimentary environments is key to understanding subsurface ecology. Previous pure culture studies have demonstrated that the transcript abundance of dissimilatory (bi)sulfite reductase genes is correlated with the sulfate-reducing activity of individual cells. To evaluate whether expression of these genes was diagnostic for subsurface communities, dissimilatory (bi)sulfite reductase gene transcript abundance in phylogenetically distinct sulfate-reducing populations was quantified during a field experiment in which acetate was added to uranium-contaminated groundwater. Analysis of dsrAB sequences prior to the addition of acetate indicated that Desulfobacteraceae, Desulfobulbaceae, and Syntrophaceae-related sulfate reducers were the most abundant. Quantifying dsrB transcripts of the individual populations suggested that Desulfobacteraceae initially had higher dsrB transcripts per cell than Desulfobulbaceae or Syntrophaceae populations and that the activity of Desulfobacteraceae increased further when the metabolism of dissimilatory metal reducers competing for the added acetate declined. In contrast, dsrB transcript abundance in Desulfobulbaceae and Syntrophaceae remained relatively constant, suggesting a lack of stimulation by added acetate. The indication of higher sulfate-reducing activity in the Desulfobacteraceae was consistent with the finding that Desulfobacteraceae became the predominant component of the sulfate-reducing community. Discontinuing acetate additions resulted in a decline in dsrB transcript abundance in the Desulfobacteraceae. These results suggest that monitoring transcripts of dissimilatory (bi)sulfite reductase genes in distinct populations of sulfate reducers can provide insight into the relative rates of metabolism of different components of the sulfate-reducing community and their ability to respond to environmental perturbations.

Molecular analysis of phosphate limitation in Geobacteraceae during the bioremediation of a uranium-contaminated aquifer.

Nutrient limitation is an environmental stress that may reduce the effectiveness of bioremediation strategies, especially when the contaminants are organic compounds or when organic compounds are added to promote microbial activities such as metal reduction. Genes indicative of phosphate-limitation were identified by microarray analysis of chemostat cultures of Geobacter sulfureducens. This analysis revealed that genes in the pst-pho operon, which is associated with a high-affinity phosphate uptake system in other microorganisms, had significantly higher transcript abundance under phosphate-limiting conditions, with the genes pstB and phoU upregulated the most. Quantitative PCR analysis of pstB and phoU transcript levels in G. sulfurreducens grown in chemostats demonstrated that the expression of these genes increased when phosphate was removed from the culture medium. Transcripts of pstB and phoU within the subsurface Geobacter species predominating during an in situ uranium-bioremediation field experiment were more abundant than in chemostat cultures of G. sulfurreducens that were not limited for phosphate. Addition of phosphate to incubations of subsurface sediments did not stimulate dissimilatory metal reduction. The added phosphate was rapidly adsorbed onto the sediments. The results demonstrate that Geobacter species can effectively reduce U(VI) even when experiencing suboptimal phosphate concentrations and that increasing phosphate availability with phosphate additions is difficult to achieve because of the high reactivity of this compound. This transcript-based approach developed for diagnosing phosphate limitation should be applicable to assessing the potential need for additional phosphate in other bioremediation processes.

Geophysical monitoring of coupled microbial and geochemical processes during stimulated subsurface bioremediation.

Understanding how microorganisms alter their physical and chemical environment during bioremediation is hindered by our inability to resolve subsurface microbial activity with high spatial resolution. Here we demonstrate the use of a minimally invasive geophysical technique to monitor stimulated microbial activity during acetate amendment in an aquifer near Rifle, Colorado. During electrical induced polarization (IP) measurements, spatiotemporal variations in the phase response between imposed electric current and the resultant electric field correlated with changes in groundwater geochemistry accompanying stimulated iron and sulfate reduction and sulfide mineral precipitation. The magnitude of the phase response varied with measurement frequency (0.125 and 1 Hz) and was dependent upon the dominant metabolic process. The spectral effect was corroborated using a biostimulated column experiment containing Rifle sediments and groundwater. Fluids and sediments recovered from regions exhibiting an anomalous phase response were enriched in Fe(II), dissolved sulfide, and cell-associated FeS nanoparticles. The accumulation of mineral precipitates and electroactive ions altered the ability of pore fluids to conduct electrical charge, accounting for the anomalous IP response and revealing the usefulness of multifrequency IP measurementsfor monitoring mineralogical and geochemical changes accompanying stimulated subsurface bioremediation.

Proteogenomic monitoring of Geobacter physiology during stimulated uranium bioremediation.

Implementation of uranium bioremediation requires methods for monitoring the membership and activities of the subsurface microbial communities that are responsible for reduction of soluble U(VI) to insoluble U(IV). Here, we report a proteomics-based approach for simultaneously documenting the strain membership and microbial physiology of the dominant Geobacter community members during in situ acetate amendment of the U-contaminated Rifle, CO, aquifer. Three planktonic Geobacter-dominated samples were obtained from two wells down-gradient of acetate addition. Over 2,500 proteins from each of these samples were identified by matching liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry spectra to peptides predicted from seven isolate Geobacter genomes. Genome-specific peptides indicate early proliferation of multiple M21 and Geobacter bemidjiensis-like strains and later possible emergence of M21 and G. bemidjiensis-like strains more closely related to Geobacter lovleyi. Throughout biostimulation, the proteome is dominated by enzymes that convert acetate to acetyl-coenzyme A and pyruvate for central metabolism, while abundant peptides matching tricarboxylic acid cycle proteins and ATP synthase subunits were also detected, indicating the importance of energy generation during the period of rapid growth following the start of biostimulation. Evolving Geobacter strain composition may be linked to changes in protein abundance over the course of biostimulation and may reflect changes in metabolic functioning. Thus, metagenomics-independent community proteogenomics can be used to diagnose the status of the subsurface consortia upon which remediation biotechnology relies.

Influence of heterogeneous ammonium availability on bacterial community structure and the expression of nitrogen fixation and ammonium transporter genes during in situ bioremediation of uranium-contaminated groundwater.

The influence of ammonium availability on bacterial community structure and the physiological status of Geobacter species during in situ bioremediation of uranium-contaminated groundwater was evaluated. Ammonium concentrations varied by 2 orders of magnitude (< 4 to 400 microM) across th study site. Analysis of 16S rRNA sequences suggested that ammonium may have been one factor influencing the community composition prior to acetate amendment with Rhodoferax species predominating over Geobacter species with higher ammonium and Dechloromonas species dominating at the site with lowest ammonium. However, once acetate was added and dissimilatory metal reduction was stimulated, Geobacter species became the predominant organisms at all locations. Rates of U(VI) reduction appeared to be more related to acetate concentrations rather than ammonium levels. In situ mRNA transcript abundance of the nitrogen fixation gene, nifD, and the ammonium transporter gene, amtB, in Geobacter species indicated that ammonium was the primary source of nitrogen during uranium reduction. The abundance of amtB was inversely correlated to ammonium levels, whereas nifD transcript levels were similar across all sites examined. These results suggest that nifD and amtB expression are closely regulated in response to ammonium availability to ensure an adequate supply of nitrogen while conserving cell resources. Thus, quantifying nifD and amtB transcript expression appears to be a useful approach for monitoring the nitrogen-related physiological status of subsurface Geobacter species. This study also emphasizes the need for more detailed analysis of geochemical and physiological interactions at the field scale in order to adequately model subsurface microbial processes during bioremediation.

Sustained removal of uranium from contaminated groundwater following stimulation of dissimilatory metal reduction.

Previous field studies on in situ bioremediation of uranium-contaminated groundwater in an aquifer in Rifle, Colorado identified two distinct phases following the addition of acetate to stimulate microbial respiration. In phase I, Geobacter species are the predominant organisms, Fe(III) is reduced, and microbial reduction of soluble U(VI) to insoluble U(IV) removes uranium from the groundwater. In phase II, Fe(III) is depleted, sulfate is reduced, and sulfate-reducing bacteria predominate. Long-term monitoring revealed an unexpected third phase during which U(VI) removal continues even after acetate additions are stopped. All three of these phases were successfully reproduced in flow-through sediment columns. When sediments from the third phase were heat sterilized, the capacity for U(VI) removal was lost. In the live sediments U(VI) removed from the groundwater was recovered as U(VI) in the sediments. This contrasts to the recovery of U(IV) in sediments resulting from the reduction of U(VI) to U(IV) during the Fe(III) reduction phase in acetate-amended sediments. Analysis of 16S rRNA gene sequences in the sediments in which U(VI) was being adsorbed indicated that members of the Firmicutes were the predominant organisms whereas no Firmicutes sequences were detected in background sediments which did not have the capacity to sorb U(VI), suggesting that the U(VI) adsorption might be due to the presence of these living organisms or at least their intact cell components. This unexpected enhanced adsorption of U(VI) onto sediments following the stimulation of microbial growth in the subsurface may potentially enhance the cost effectiveness of in situ uranium bioremediation.

Gene transcript analysis of assimilatory iron limitation in Geobacteraceae during groundwater bioremediation.

Limitations on the availability of Fe(III) as an electron acceptor are thought to play an important role in restricting the growth and activity of Geobacter species during bioremediation of contaminated subsurface environments, but the possibility that these organisms might also be limited in the subsurface by the availability of iron for assimilatory purposes was not previously considered because copious quantities of Fe(II) are produced as the result of Fe(III) reduction. Analysis of multiple Geobacteraceae genomes revealed the presence of a three-gene cluster consisting of homologues of two iron-dependent regulators, fur and dtxR (ideR), separated by a homologue of feoB, which encodes an Fe(II) uptake protein. This cluster appears to be conserved among members of the Geobacteraceae and was detected in several environments. Expression of the fur-feoB-ideR cluster decreased as Fe(II) concentrations increased in chemostat cultures. The number of Geobacteraceae feoB transcripts in groundwater samples from a site undergoing in situ uranium bioremediation was relatively high until the concentration of dissolved Fe(II) increased near the end of the field experiment. These results suggest that, because much of the Fe(II) is sequestered in solid phases, Geobacter species, which have a high requirement for iron for iron-sulfur proteins, may be limited by the amount of iron available for assimilatory purposes. These results demonstrate the ability of transcript analysis to reveal previously unsuspected aspects of the in situ physiology of microorganisms in subsurface environments.

[Lipids and apolipoproteins A1 and B alterations in stroke]. / Lipides et apolipoprotéines A1 et B dans les accidents vasculaires cérébraux.

The purpose of this case-control study was to determine the variations of lipoproteins during stroke in adults from Ivory Coast. The survey included 72 subjects presenting with hemorrhagic stroke and 58 of ischemic stroke, aged of 25 at 93 years. Lipids parameters have been measured by a colorimetric enzymatic method. Apolipoproteins have been determined by immunoturbidimetry. Results showed significant decrease of HDL-cholesterol and apoprotein A1 in patients by comparison with control subjects. More over, an increase of the atherogenicity index expressed as total/HDL-cholesterol or apolipoprotein B /apolipoprotein A1, of the triglycerides and apolipoprotein B has been observed.

La pratique de l'echographie dans le district sanitaire de San-Pedro

Notre travail est une etude comportant une enquete prospective sur une periode de six mois (de septembre 2003 a fevrier 2004) portant sur l'analyse de 902 Comptes rendus d'examens echographiques de l'unite d'echographie du CHR de San-Pedro et une enquete prospective portant sur l'entretien avec 74 prescripteurs du district sanitaire dudit departement. Son but essentiel est de montrer l'interet de l'echographie dans un district sanitaire provincial. Il ressort de cette etude que l'echographie affirme de plus en plus son efficacite dans l'exploration obstetricale; abdominale; pelvienne; testiculaire; mammaire; thyroidienne; parotidienne et des tissus mous. Malheureusement; l'echographie n'a pas ete exploitee dans un but therapeutique ou interventionnel durant la periode de notre etude. Le district sanitaire de San-Pedro dispose d'un echographe pour 60.574 habitants et d'un radiologue pour 242.188 habitants. Les patients provenaient pour la plupart de la ville de San-Pedro (71.73pour cent). C'etait le plus souvent des adolescents et des adultes jeunes (84;92pour cent) de sexe feminin (82;71pour cent) avec une forte prevalence de l'echographie pelvienne chez les femmes et de l'echographie abdominale chez les hommes. Les explorations obstetricales etaient les plus frequentes avec 44.35pour cent des cas; suivies des explorations pelviennes feminines et des explorations abdominales respectivement avec 29.27pour cent et 21;40pour cent des cas. Les atteintes annexielle uterines dominaient la pathologie pelvienne (60;81pour cent) avec une prevalence des dystrophies ovariennes (71;09pour cent) des cas. Au niveau abdominal; les affections hepatiques etaient les plus frequentes (30;81pour cent) avec une predominance des hepatomegalies homogenes (52.16pour cent des cas). 63;51pour cent des prescripteurs etaient satisfaits des prestations echographiques. Pour 45pour cent d'entre eux le cout constitue un obstacle a la prescription de l'examen echographiques. L'echographie constitue une source de rentabilite financiere de l'ordre 1.6. Outre sa rentabilite financiere et diagnostique; l'echographie est interessante innocuite et ses depenses de fonctionnement faibles. Son installation dans un hospitalier regional rapproche les populations de l'un des moyens d'exploration en imagerie medicale les plus adaptes aux diagnostics de pathologies frequemment rencontrees

Reinfection with Schistosoma haematobium following school-based chemotherapy with praziquantel in four highly endemic villages in Côte d'Ivoire.

We present the comparative evaluation of school-based chemotherapy with praziquantel on Schistosoma haematobium reinfection patterns, 6, 12, 18 and 24 months after systematic treatment of schoolchildren in four villages of south-central Côte d'Ivoire. At baseline, very high S. haematobium infection prevalences of 88-94% were found in Taabo Village, located adjacent to a large man-made lake, and in Batera and Bodo, where small dams were constructed. In Assinzé, a village with no man-made environmental alterations, the baseline infection prevalence was significantly lower (67%). The parasitological cure rate, assessed 4 weeks after praziquantel administration in the village with the highest prevalence and intensity of infection, was high (82%), and showed a clear association with infection intensity prior to treatment. Six months after chemotherapy, significant reductions in the prevalence and intensity of infection were observed in all villages. However, infection prevalence was again high in Taabo Village (63%) and in Batera (49%). Different patterns of reinfection occurred in the four villages: rapid reinfection in Taabo Village to reach almost baseline infection prevalence 12 months post-treatment; slow but gradual increase in the prevalence and intensity of infection in Bodo; marked increase in prevalence and intensity of infection during the second year of the follow-up in Assinzé; and prevalence and intensity of infection that remained almost constant between 6 and 24 months post-treatment in Batera. Our study confirms that S. haematobium reinfection patterns largely depend on the local epidemiological setting, which is of central importance to tailoring treatment strategies that are well adapted to these different settings.

[Sequela of hand burns in children: 32 cases followed and treated in the Plastic Surgery and Reconstruction department of the University Hospital Center of Treichville, Abidjan]. / Les sequelles de brûlures de la main chez l'enfant: a propos de 32 cas suivis et traités à la Consultation de Chirurgie Plastique et Reconstructrice du Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Treichville-Abidjan.

An investigation on the effects of hand burns has been undertaken about 32 children admitted in the plastic surgery outpatients Department. Accident occurs among the lower class population and heat is the major factor pointed out. The most frequent effects are hand palmar contracture. The surgical treatment completed with the functional re-education has given very good results in 79% cases. However the cheloid contractures are the most difficult to cure. Indeed the authors insist or the prevention and the creation of a center of burned patients and a plastic surgery Service to take care of patients whose life prognostic is optimistic.

[Semilunar dislocations. A report of 8 cases. (Orthopedic service-University Hospital Center of Treichville-Abidjan)]. / Les luxations du semi-lunaire. A propos de 8 observations. (Service Orthopédie-Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Treichville-Abidjan).

The authors have underlined in a study made on 8 observations that the lunate dislocation is scar. All their patients were men under 40 years old. Industrial injury was the most dominant cause. Using WITVOET and ALLIEU's classification, they noticed a predominance of perilunar and posterior dislocations (7/8 cases). Perilunar anterior dislocations and isolated scaphoid carpal dislocation have not been encountered. The treatment which has been orthopaedic or surgical has given moderate results: Good results = 4; Average result = 1; Bad results = 2; Non seen to again = 1 The authors think that a precocious diagnosis and an orthopaedic treatment in the forms detected early and surgical treatment in ancient forms are the only guarantee of a good functional result avoiding dread diseases such as carpal instability, radiocarpal arthrosis.

[Intra-keloid excision and deferred corticoid infiltration in the treatment of keloids. University Hospital Center of Treichville-Abidjan]. / Exérèse intra-chéloïdienne et infiltration différée de corticoïdes dans le traitement des chéloïdes. (Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Treichville-Abidjan).

On a series of 38 keloid surgery patients the authors noted a strong female predominance and the frequency of ear lobule keloid. After some rather unsuccessful excision-suture of the keloid they recommend the intra- keloid excision to be followed by a late corticoid infiltration but deferred until the 15th day. The results obtained were encouraging but some researches have to be made with regard to the etiology of this affection which might probably resolve the therapeutic problem.

[Skin expansion in plastic surgery. (University Hospital Center of Treichville-Abidjan)]. / L'expansion cutanée en chirurgie plastique. (Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Treichville-Abidjan).

The skin expansion by inflatable prosthesis is a recent method to resolve insufficient tissue a short series of 7 cases. But the authors think that despite these inconveniences this technique needs to be largely diffused and used judiciously.

[Microsurgery in revascularizations and replantations of the upper extremity in emergency cases. Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. University Hospital Center of Treichville-Abidjan]. / La microchirurgie dans les revascularisations et les réplantations du membre supérieur en urgence. Département de chirurgie plastique et reconstructrice Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Treichville - Abidjan.

The authors report their experience in vascular and nervous microsurgery. They remark that there is a long time between the emergency reception of the wounded person and the appeal to plastic surgery. They deplore also the bad collaboration between the different department of emergency surgery. Finally they emphasize that the scarcity of cases is due to insufficient information of different departments of emergency surgery in microsurgery era.