Validez y confiabilidad de la Escala de Involucramiento Parental: Actividades de cuidado y socialización en padres peruanos / Validity and reliability of the Parental Involvement Scale: Caregiving and socialization activities in Peruvian parents

Resumen El presente estudio busca obtener evidencias de validez y confiabilidad de la Escala de Involucramiento Parental: Actividades de cuidado y socialización en una muestra de padres peruanos de niños y niñas preescolares. Para ello, se realizó una traducción y armonización del lenguaje del instrumento a partir de su versión en inglés al español, para luego aplicar la nueva versión a un grupo de 420 padres y 420 madres de niños y niñas de cinco ciudades. La evidencia de la estructura interna se evaluó a través de un análisis factorial confirmatorio multigrupo, utilizando el método de máxima verosimilitud para examinar la estructura de los 26 ítems originales. Durante el análisis, se procedió a la eliminación progresiva de los ítems con bajas cargas factoriales hasta encontrar un modelo con adecuados indicadores de ajuste [x 2(531) = 822.82; p < .001; x 2/gl = 1.550; GFI = .90; CFI = .95; TLI = .94; RMSEA = .036, IC 90 % = (.031-.041), p close = 1.000, SRMR = .05]. El resultado fue una escala de 18 ítems distribuidos en las cinco dimensiones originales, cada una con confiabilidad por consistencia interna alfa de Cronbach entre .66 y .78 y coeficientes omega entre .70 y .75. La confiabilidad entre evaluadores estuvo entre .67 y .88. Los alcances y limitaciones del estudio son discutidos teniendo en cuenta la importancia de contar con instrumentos de medición del involucramiento paterno, relativo al materno, que consideren las perspectivas de padres y madres en el contexto peruano.

Abstract The present study seeks to obtain validity and reliability evidence of the Parental Involvement Scale: Care and socialization activities in a sample of Peruvian parents of preschool children. For this purpose, the instrument was translated and linguistically harmonized from its English version into Spanish and then applied to a group of 420 fathers and 420 mothers of children from five cities. Evidence of the internal structure was evaluated through a multigroup confirmatory factor analysis, using the maximum likelihood method to examine the structure of the original 26 items. Items with low factor loadings were progressively eliminated until a model with adequate fit indicators was found [x 2 (531) = 822.82; p <0,001; x 2 /gl = 1.550; GFI = .90; CFI = .95; TLI = .94; RMSEA = .036, IC del 90% (.031 - .041), p close = 1.000, SRMR = .05]. The result was a18-items scale distributed in the five original dimensions, each with Cronbach's alpha internal consistency reliability between .66 and .78 and Omega coefficients between .70 and .75. Inter-rater reliability was between .67 and .88. The scope and limitations of the study are discussed considering the relevance of having instruments to measure paternal involvement relative to maternal involvement, that consider the perspectives of fathers and mothers in the Peruvian context.

Attachment theory's core hypotheses in rural Andean Peru.

This is the first study aiming to test two universality claims of attachment theory within a rural Andean sample from Cusco, Peru. A total of 69 mothers and their children (6 to 36 months) participated. Child attachment security was assessed with the Attachment Q-set (AQS), maternal sensitivity was measured during three naturalistic episodes (free interaction, bathing, and feeding) with the Ainsworth sensitivity scale and the Maternal Behavior Q-sort (MBQS), and a cumulative maternal risk variable was calculated. Results revealed that most children displayed less characteristic secure base behaviors in the interactions with their mothers, compared to other reference samples. Furthermore, an association between maternal sensitivity and child attachment security was found, and a negative relation between maternal sensitivity and the cumulative risk variable. These results support some of the attachment theory's universality claims, and suggest new avenues for research on assessment issues in rural samples in the Global South.

Attachment research and anti-racism: learning from Black and Brown scholars.

Preliminary evidence suggests that people and scholars of African and/or Latin American and Caribbean origin are often under-represented in mainstream attachment scholarship. In this commentary, we highlight the difficulty of conducting attachment theory research outside of the United States, particularly in Latin American countries. We reflect on the contributions by the authors of this special issue . We also identify (a) ways in which to center the experiences of Black and Brown people and scholars to push the field toward antiracism, and (b) the challenges of attachment theory and research in becoming anti-racist by considering the structural nature of racism.

Maternal sensitivity in rural Andean and Amazonian Peru.

In the current study, we observed 12 mothers with a 4-21-month-old infant for around 3 hours during their daily activities such as feeding, bathing, and soothing in the multiple-caregiver cultural contexts of rural Peru. Overall, sensitivity levels were high, with an average of 7.33 (out of 9), and seven of the twelve mothers scoring in the high range (scores 7-9), and the remaining five in the good-enough range (scores 5-6). A qualitative description of sensitive responsiveness is presented through representative examples. Notable patterns were flexibility in caregiving routines that allow for very child-centered maternal behavior; mothers' ability to multitask, combining household and agricultural work with high sensitive responsiveness to their infants' signals; the presence of multiple caregivers that ensured that the infants were well attended when mothers were temporarily unavailable; and what seems to be a culturally normative tendency to be sensitively responsive to very young children.

Propiedades psicométricas del Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI) en jóvenes universitarios ecuatorianos / Psychometric properties of Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI) in Ecuadorian university students / Propriedades psicométricas do Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI) em jovens universitários equatorianos

Resumen: El objetivo del presente estudio fue obtener los índices de validez y confiabilidad del Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI) en sus versiones Madre y Padre en población ecuatoriana. La investigación fue de carácter cuantitativo e instrumental; se realizó un Análisis Factorial Confirmatorio, y se verificó la fiabilidad de ambos instrumentos. Los participantes fueron jóvenes universitarios de Quito (n= 663 para el PBI Madre y n= 611 para el PBI padre). Los resultados de las dos versiones del PBI mostraron una estructura factorial de dos factores con reducción de ítems para cada una, con una confiabilidad adecuada: (1) PBI Madre: 20 ítems, F1 (ω = .86) y F2 (ω = .78). (2) PBI Padre: 17 ítems, F1 (ω = .88) y F2 (ω = .78). Por lo que se puede concluir que el instrumento conserva la estructura factorial de la versión original y cuenta con las propiedades psicométricas adecuadas para el uso en población ecuatoriana.

Abstract: The objective of this study was to obtain the validity and reliability indices of the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI) in its Mother and Father versions in the Ecuadorian population. The research was quantitative and instrumental; a Confirmatory Factor Analysis was performed, and the reliability of both instruments was verified. The participants were young university students from Quito (n = 663 for the Mother PBI and n = 611 for the Father PBI). The results of the two versions showed a factorial structure of two factors with reduction of items for each one, with adequate reliability: (1) Mother PBI: 20 items, F1 (ω = .86), F2 (ω = .78), (2) Father PBI: 17 items, F1 (ω = .88) , F2 (ω = .78). Therefore, it can be concluded that the instrument preserves the factorial structure of the original version and has adequate psychometric properties for use in the Ecuadorian population.

Resumo: O objetivo deste estudo foi obter os índices de validade e confiabilidade do Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI) em suas versões Mãe e Pai na população equatoriana. Foi realizada análise fatorial confirmatória e verificada a confiabilidade de ambos os instrumentos. Os participantes eram jovens estudantes universitários de Quito (n = 663 para a Mãe PBI e n = 611 para o Pai PBI). Os resultados das duas versões do PIB mostraram uma estrutura fatorial de dois fatores com redução de itens para cada um, com confiabilidade adequada: (1) PIB mãe: 20 itens, F1 (ω = 0.86) e F2 (ω = 0.78 ) (2) Pai PBI: 17 itens, F1 (ω = 0.88) e F2 (ω = 0.78). Portanto, pode-se concluir que o instrumento preserva a estrutura fatorial da versão original e possui propriedades psicométricas adequadas para uso na população equatoriana.

Evidencias de validez de constructo y de criterio de la Escala Massie-Campbell de Apego Durante Estrés (ADS) / Evidências de validade de constructo e de critério da Escala MassieCampbell de Apego durante o Stress (ADS) / Construct and criterion validity evidences of the Massie-Campbell Scale of Attachment During Stress (ADS)

Resumen La escala Massie-Campbell de Apego Durante Estrés (ADS; 1983), es una guía de observación de la interacción entre madres (o cuidadores) y sus hijos de 6 a 18 meses. Este estudio busca obtener evidencias de validez de constructo (convergente y divergente) y de criterio (sensibilidad, especificidad y valores predictivos) de dicho instrumento. Para ello, se evaluó el apego en 32 niños y niñas de ocho a diez meses de Lima, Perú, utilizando el ADS y el Attachment Q-set 3.0 (AQS), de Waters (1995), así como la sensibilidad de sus madres. Como resultado, se encontró que las clasificaciones del apego seguro e inseguro dadas a partir del ADS se encuentran relacionadas con los puntajes continuos de seguridad del apego del AQS (r = .41, p = .02) y con las clasificaciones dicotómicas (seguro vs. inseguro) obtenidas a partir del mismo [χ2 (1, N = 32) = 4.69, p = .03, d = .83]. Adicionalmente, no se hallaron diferencias significativas en la sensibilidad materna de las madres de los niños clasificados como seguros y la de los inseguros. Dado que la sensibilidad de la escala ADS no alcanzó niveles satisfactorios (33.3 %, IC 95 % = [15.48; 56.90]), de manera exploratoria se evaluó un punto de corte de cinco conductas seguras, el cual mejora su sensibilidad (47.6 %, IC 95 % = [26.4; 69.7]) y mantiene sus niveles satisfactorios de especificidad (90.9 %, IC 95 % = [57.1; 99.5]). En conclusión, el instrumento muestra adecuadas evidencias de validez de constructo convergente, pero no divergente; y, al ser considerado un instrumento de tamizaje, su sensibilidad, especificidad y valores predictivos necesitan seguir siendo estudiados con el fin de conseguir un punto de corte con mayor validez.

Resumo A Escala Massie-Campbell de Apego durante o Stress (ADS; 1983) é um guia de observação da interação entre mães (ou cuidadores) e seus filhos de 6 a 18 meses. Este estudo procura obter evidências de validade de constructo (convergente e divergente) e de critério (sensibilidade, especificidade e valores preditivos) desse instrumento. Para isso, foi avaliado o apego em 32 crianças de oito a dez meses, de Lima, Peru, utilizando o ADS e o Attachment Q-set 3.0 (AQS), de Waters (1995), bem como a sensibilidade de suas mães. Como resultados, constatou-se que as classificações do apego seguro e inseguro dadas a partir do ADS se encontram relacionadas com as pontuações contínuas de segurança do apego do AQS (r = .41, p = .02) e com as classificações dicotômicas (seguro versus inseguro) obtidas a partir deste [χ2 (1, N = 32) = 4.69, p = .03, d = .83]. Além disso, não foram encontradas diferenças significativas na sensibilidade materna das mães das crianças classificadas como seguras e a das inseguras. Tendo em vista que a sensibilidade da escala ADS não atingiu níveis satisfatórios (33.3 %, IC 95 % = [15.48; 56.90]), de maneira exploratória, foi avaliado um ponto de corte de cinco comportamentos seguros, o que melhora sua sensibilidade (47.6 %, IC 95 % = [26.4; 69.7]) e mantém seus níveis satisfatórios de especificidade (90.9 %, IC 95 % = [57.1; 99.5]). Em conclusão, o instrumento mostra adequadas evidências de validade de constructo convergente, mas não divergente; e, ao ser considerado um instrumento de rastreamento, sua sensibilidade, especificidade e valores preditivos precisam continuar sendo estudados a fim de conseguir um ponto de corte com maior validade.

Abstract The Massie-Campbell Attachment During Stress Scale (ADS, Massie & Campbell, 1983) is an observation guide of the interactions between mothers (or caretakers) and children from 6 to 18 months. This study sought the construct validity (convergent and discriminant) of ADS, as well as its criterion validity (sensitivity, specificity, and predictive values). To that end, child attachment was measured in a group of 32 children aged 8 to 10 months from Lima, Peru using ADS and Attachment Q-set 3.0 (AQS, Waters, 1995). Maternal sensitivity was assessed as well. It was found that ADS attachment classifications were related with AQS attachment security continuous scores (r = .41, p = .02) and with its dichotomous classifications [secure vs. insecure; χ2 (1, N = 32) = 4.69, p = 0.03, d = 0.83]. Additionally, no significant differences between the ADS's maternal sensitivity of mothers with children classified as secure and mothers with children classified as insecure were found. Since ADS´s sensitivity did not reach satisfactory levels (33.3 %, 95 % CI = [15.48, 56.90]), a cut-off point of 5 secure behaviors was used, which improved its sensitivity (47.6 %, 95 % CI = [26.4; 69.7]) while maintaining satisfactory levels of specificity (90.9 %, 95 % CI = [57.1; 99.5]). The instrument shows adequate convergent validity but lacks evidence of discriminant validity. Further exploration of ADS's sensitivity, specificity, and predictive values is recommended in order to obtain a cut-off point with greater validity, given that the instrument is considered a screening test.

Secure base scripted knowledge and preschoolers' social competence in samples from Mexico and Peru.

A central hypothesis in attachment theory poses that child-mother relationships have implications for children's social competence. A key task for researchers is that of investigating the pathways responsible for the association found between child attachment security and social competence. We studied whether children's secure base representations, defined as scripts, are associated with assessments of social competence in a preschool setting. We tested this association in samples from Mexico and Peru. Preschoolers' attachment representations were assessed via narratives gathered with the Attachment Story Completion Task. Teachers (in Mexico) and mothers (in Peru) provided questionnaire information about social competence. Attachment scripts predicted children's social competence in both samples. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for theory and research.

Maternal Care and Attachment Security in Preschool Children / Cuidado Materno e Apego em Crianças Pré-escolares / Cuidado Materno y Seguridad del Apego del Niño Preescolar

Abstract This study assessed and compared the relationship between maternal sensitivity and child attachment in two groups of mother-child dyads from Lima, Peru, one group with children 4 years old and older and a second group with younger children. Fifty-six dyads participated in the study. The mothers ages ranged between 22 and 45 years (M = 33.14, SD = 5.50); 82.1% of them had higher education and 73.2% were in a partner relationship. Of the children, 53.6 were boys and 41.1% were an only child. The study used AQS and MBPQS to rate child and maternal behavior respectively. Our results show a high correlation between attachment security and maternal sensitivity in both groups, as well as specific manifestations of these variables in the context studied.

Resumo O objetivo do presente estudo foi comparar a relação entre a qualidade da vinculação que as crianças estabelecem com a figura materna e a sensibilidade destas com filhos/as menores e maiores de 4 anos na cidade de Lima, Peru. Participaram 56 díades mãe-criança. A média de idades das mães é de 33,14 (DP = 5,50), 82,1% tinham ensino superior, 73,2 % estavam numa relação estável. 53,6% das crianças eram do sexo masculino e 41.1% filhos únicos. O AQS e o MBPQS foram utilizados para caracterizar os comportamentos de base segura das crianças e a sensibilidade materna. Constatou-se que a qualidade de vinculação está positiva e significativamente correlacionada com a sensibilidade materna. Estes resultados sugerem manifestações particulares do contexto peruano.

Resumen Se evaluó la relación entre la sensibilidad materna y la seguridad del apego del niño/a en diadas madre-niño/a de Lima, Perú; esta relación se comparó entre díadas con hijos mayores y con hijos menores de 4 años. Participaron 56 díadas; las madres tenían entre 22 y 45 años (M = 33.14, DE = 5.50), 82.1% reportó estudios superiores y 73.2% una relación de pareja; 53.6% fueron niños y 41.1% eran hijos únicos. Se utilizaron el AQS y el MBPQS para la calificación de la conducta del niño y de la madre respectivamente. Se halló una alta correlación entre ambas variables en ambos grupos. Se describen manifestaciones particulares de la seguridad del apego y la sensibilidad en el contexto estudiado.

Maternal sensitivity in rural Andean and Amazonian Peru.

In the current study, we observed 12 mothers with a 4-21-month-old infant during their daily activities for around 3 h per dyad, focusing on daily caregiving practices such as feeding, bathing, and soothing in the rural multiple-caregiver cultural contexts of the Andean and Amazonian parts of Peru. Overall, sensitivity levels were high, with an average of 7.33 (out of 9), and 7 out of the 12 mothers scoring in the high range (scores 7-9), and the remaining 5 in the good-enough range (scores 5-6). In-depth descriptions of mother-infant interactions show that these high sensitivity levels reflect mothers' ability to multitask, combining household and agricultural chores with high sensitive responsiveness to their infants' signals. The presence of multiple caregivers seemed to allow mothers to make sure the infants were well attended when they were temporarily unavailable but combined with quick renewed availability if the infant seemed to need maternal proximity.

Impact of a child stimulation intervention on early child development in rural Peru: a cluster randomised trial using a reciprocal control design.

OBJECTIVE: Stimulation in early childhood can alleviate adverse effects of poverty. In a community-randomised trial, we implemented 2 home-based interventions, each serving as an attention control for the other. One group received an integrated household intervention package (IHIP), whereas the other group received an early child development (ECD) intervention. The primary objective of the study was to evaluate the effect of IHIP on diarrhoea and respiratory infections, the details of which are described elsewhere. Here, we present the impact of the ECD intervention on early childhood development indicators. METHODS: In this non-blinded community-randomised trial, an ECD intervention, adapted from the Peruvian government's National Wawa Wasi ECD programme, was implemented in 25 rural Peruvian Andean communities. We enrolled 534 children aged 6-35 months, from 50 communities randomised 1:1 into ECD and IHIP communities. In ECD communities, trained fieldworkers instructed mothers every 3 weeks over the 12 months study, to stimulate and interact with their children and to use standard programme toys. IHIP communities received an improved stove and hygiene promotion. Using a nationally validated ECD evaluation instrument, all children were assessed at baseline and 12 months later for overall performance on age-specific developmental milestones which fall into 7 developmental domains. FINDINGS: At baseline, ECD-group and IHIP-group children performed similarly in all domains. After 12 months, data from 258 ECD-group and 251 IHIP-group children could be analysed. The proportion of children scoring above the mean in their specific age group was significantly higher in the ECD group in all domains (range: 12-23%-points higher than IHIP group). We observed the biggest difference in fine motor skills (62% vs 39% scores above the mean, OR: 2.6, 95% CI 1.7 to 3.9). CONCLUSIONS: The home-based ECD intervention effectively improved child development overall across domains and separately by investigated domain. Home-based strategies could be a promising component of poverty alleviation programmes seeking to improve developmental outcomes among rural Peruvian children. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: ISRCTN28191222; results.

Cuidado materno y seguridad del apego antes del primer año de vida / Maternal Care and Attachment Security in the First Year of Life

La relación entre el cuidado materno (sensibilidad) y la seguridad del apego del niño (conducta de base segura) ha sido corroborada en diferentes contextos y edades. Sin embargo, existe ausencia de estudios que la hayan estudiado antes del primer año de vida. La presente investigación analizó esta relación en un grupo de 32 madres peruanas de 19 a 44 años de nivel socioeconómico bajo y sus hijos de 8 a 10 meses. La sensibilidad fue evaluada a través del Q-sort del Comportamiento Materno (MBQS) (Pederson & Moran, 1995) y la seguridad del apego mediante el Q-sort del Apego (Waters, 1995). Los resultados muestran que existe una relación directa y significativa entre ambas y que las separaciones físicas juegan un rol importante en esta relación.

Sensitivity hypothesis has been corroborated in different contexts and children ages; however, there is lack of studies that have analyzed it in the first year of life. The present study related maternal sensitivity and child secure base behavior in a group of 32 Peruvian mothers of low income families. Mothers were 19 to 44 years old and their children were between 8 and 10 months old. Mother's sensitivity was assessed using the Q-sort Maternal Behavior (Pederson & Moran, 1995) and child secure base behavior through the Attachment Q-sort (Waters, 1995). Results indicated a significant and direct relationship between two constructs and that early mother-infant physical separations play an important role in this relationship.

Maternal Sensitivity and Child Secure Base Use in Early Childhood: Studies in Different Cultural Contexts.

This study tested whether maternal sensitivity and child security are related during early childhood and whether such an association is found in different cultural and social contexts. Mother-child dyads (N = 237) from four different countries (Colombia, Mexico, Peru, and the United States) were observed in naturalistic settings when children were between 36 and 72 months of age. Maternal and child behavior during interactions at home and in the playground were described using Q methodology. Findings reveal that across cultures, concurrent maternal sensitivity and more specific behavioral domains of maternal care (e.g., contributions to harmonious interactions and secure base support) are important for children's attachment security during early childhood. Implications for the study of attachment relationships beyond infancy and in diverse contexts are highlighted.

Confiabilidad y validez de constructo del autocuestionario de modelos internos de relaciones de apego adulto, CaMir: CaMir Q Sort, with a Peruvian Sample / Reliability and Validity of Attachment Cognitions / Confiabilidade e validez de constructo do autoquestionario de modelos interno de relações de apego adulto, CaMir

Objetivo. Realizar un estudio preliminar de la confiabilidad y validez de constructo del autocuestionario de modelos internos de relaciones de apego adulto (CaMir) en una muestra peruana. Método. Los participantes fueron 372 personas de Lima metropolitana, 240 mujeres y 132 hombres, cuyas edades se encuentran entre 18 y 42 años (M = 26.63; DE = 5.69). El 76.3% pertenece a un nivel socioeconómico medio, el resto a uno bajo. Se evaluó la confiabilidad por consistencia interna y por estabilidad temporal, como también la validez de constructo a partir de las correlaciones entre las diferentes escalas y prototipos. Igualmente, se realizó un análisis factorial. Resultados. Se encontraron adecuados niveles de confiabilidad para la mayoría de las escalas. En este orden de ideas, la mayoría de las correlaciones entre prototipos y escalas son consistentes con lo teóricamente esperado. El análisis factorial mostró la existencia de cinco factores latentes. Conclusiones. El CaMir es un instrumento confiable, con una aceptable validez para la evaluación de los modelos internos de relaciones de apego adulto, en especial, en el nivel socioeconómico medio, en los cuales predomina el nivel de instrucción superior. Sin embargo, se trata de un estudio preliminar y aún exploratorio que necesita ser contrastado con futuras investigaciones.

Objective. This study aims to assess preliminarily reliability and validity of the Attachment Cognitions: The CaMir Q Sort. The instrument evaluates attachment cognitions at the level of semantic representations and the processing of these cognitions. Method. Participants were 372 persons who lived in Lima (Peru's capital city), of these 240 were women and 132 were men, with ages ranging between 18 and 42 years (M = 26.63, SD = 5.69). 76.3% belonged to middle socioeconomic status (SES) and the rest of participants to low SES. They attained high school and higher education. Reliability was evaluated through internal consistency and temporal stability. Construct validity was explored correlating its scales, and through factor analysis. Results. Adequate levels of reliability were found for most scales, and most correlations between prototypes and scales are consistent with theory. Factor analysis shows 5 latent factors. Conclusion. CaMir is a reliable instrument and has an acceptable validity for the assessment of attachment cognitions especially in middle socio-economic status (SES). However, this study is preliminary and still in its exploratory stage, therefore further research is needed.

Escopo. Realizar um estudo preliminar da confiabilidade e validez do constructo do autoquestionario de modelos internos de relações de apego adulto (CaMir) em uma amostra peruana. Metodologia. Os participantes foram 372 pessoas de Lima metropolitana, 240 mulheres e 132 homens, cuias idades estão entre os 18 e 42 anos (M = 26.63; DE = 5.69). O 76.3% pertence a um nível socioeconómico médio, o resto a um baixo. Foi avaliada a confiabilidade por consistência interna e por estabilidade temporal assim como também a validez de constructo a partir das correlações entre as diferentes escalas e protótipos. Também foi feita uma análise fatorial . Resultados. Foram achados níveis adequados de confiabilidade para a maioria das escadas. Em este ordem de ideias, a maioria das correlações entre protótipos e escadas são consistentes com o teoricamente esperado. A análise fatorial mostrou a existência de 5 fatores latentes. Conclusão. O CaMir é um instrumento confiável, com uma aceitável validez para a avaliação dos modelos internos de relações de apego adulto, em especial no nível socioeconómico médio, nos quais predomina o nível de instrução superior. Contudo é um estudo preliminar e ainda exploratório que precisa ser contrastado com futuras pesquisas.

Is the secure base phenomenon evident here, there, and anywhere? A cross-cultural study of child behavior and experts' definitions.

The evolutionary rationale offered by Bowlby implies that secure base relationships are common in child-caregiver dyads and thus, child secure behavior observable across diverse social contexts and cultures. This study offers a test of the universality hypothesis. Trained observers in nine countries used the Attachment Q-set to describe the organization of children's behavior in naturalistic settings. Children (N = 547) were 10-72 months old. Child development experts (N = 81) from all countries provided definitions of optimal child secure base use. Findings indicate that children from all countries use their mother as a secure base. Children's organization of secure base behavior was modestly related to each other both within and across countries. Experts' descriptions of the optimally attached child were highly similar across cultures.