Structural and thermodynamic limits of layer thickness in 2D halide perovskites.

In the fast-evolving field of halide perovskite semiconductors, the 2D perovskites (A')2(A) n-1M n X3n+1 [where A = Cs+, CH3NH3+, HC(NH2)2+; A' = ammonium cation acting as spacer; M = Ge2+, Sn2+, Pb2+; and X = Cl-, Br-, I-] have recently made a critical entry. The n value defines the thickness of the 2D layers, which controls the optical and electronic properties. The 2D perovskites have demonstrated preliminary optoelectronic device lifetime superior to their 3D counterparts. They have also attracted fundamental interest as solution-processed quantum wells with structural and physical properties tunable via chemical composition, notably by the n value defining the perovskite layer thickness. The higher members (n > 5) have not been documented, and there are important scientific questions underlying fundamental limits for n To develop and utilize these materials in technology, it is imperative to understand their thermodynamic stability, fundamental synthetic limitations, and the derived structure-function relationships. We report the effective synthesis of the highest iodide n-members yet, namely (CH3(CH2)2NH3)2(CH3NH3)5Pb6I19 (n = 6) and (CH3(CH2)2NH3)2(CH3NH3)6Pb7I22 (n = 7), and confirm the crystal structure with single-crystal X-ray diffraction, and provide indirect evidence for "(CH3(CH2)2NH3)2(CH3NH3)8Pb9I28" ("n = 9"). Direct HCl solution calorimetric measurements show the compounds with n > 7 have unfavorable enthalpies of formation (ΔHf), suggesting the formation of higher homologs to be challenging. Finally, we report preliminary n-dependent solar cell efficiency in the range of 9-12.6% in these higher n-members, highlighting the strong promise of these materials for high-performance devices.

Thermochemical Measurements of Alkali Cation Association to Hexatantalate.

Ion association is an important process in aqueous dissolution, precipitation, and crystallization of ionic inorganic, organic, and biological materials. Polyoxometalates (POMs) are good model compounds for understanding the complex relationships between lattice energy, ion-pairing in solution, and salt solubility. Here we perform calorimetric measurements to elucidate trends in cluster stability, lattice energy, and ion-pairing behavior studies of simple hexatantalate salts in neat water, parent hydroxide solutions, and molybdate melts, extending previous studies on the isostructural hexaniobates. High temperature calorimetry of alkali salts of hexatantalate reveals that the enthalpies of formation from oxides of the K, Rb, and Cs salts are more similar to each other than they are for their niobate analogues and that the tantalate cluster is energetically less stable than hexaniobate. Aqueous dissolution calorimetry reveals that the cesium salt of hexatantalate has a similar concentration dependence on its dissolution enthalpy to that of hexaniobate. However, unlike rubidium hexaniobate, rubidium hexatantalate also exhibits increased concentration dependence, indicating that hextantalate can undergo increased ion-pairing with alkali salts other than cesium, despite the dilute environments studied. Dissolution enthalpies of POM salts in the parent alkali hydroxides shows that protonation of clusters stabilizes lattices even more than the strongly associating heavy alkali cations do. Additionally, neither weak nor strong lattice ion associations necessarily correlates with respectively high or low aqueous solubility. These studies illuminate the importance of considering ion-pairing among the interrelated processes in the aqueous dissolution of ionic salts that can be extended to serving as a model of cation association to metal oxide surfaces.

Experimental and Theoretical Evaluation of the Stability of True MOF Polymorphs Explains Their Mechanochemical Interconversions.

We provide the first combined experimental and theoretical evaluation of how differences in ligand structure and framework topology affect the relative stabilities of isocompositional (i.e., true polymorph) metal-organic frameworks (MOFs). We used solution calorimetry and periodic DFT calculations to analyze the thermodynamics of two families of topologically distinct polymorphs of zinc zeolitic imidazolate frameworks (ZIFs) based on 2-methyl- and 2-ethylimidazolate linkers, demonstrating a correlation between measured thermodynamic stability and density, and a pronounced effect of the ligand substituent on their stability. The results show that mechanochemical syntheses and transformations of ZIFs are consistent with Ostwald's rule of stages and proceed toward thermodynamically increasingly stable, more dense phases.

Thermodynamic Properties of Polymorphs of Fluorosulfate Based Cathode Materials with Exchangeable Potassium Ions.

FeSO4 F-based frameworks have recently emerged as attractive candidates for alkali insertion electrodes. Mainly owing to their rich crystal chemistry, they offer a variety of new host structures with different electrochemical performances and physical properties. In this paper we report the thermodynamic stability of two such K-based "FeSO4 F" host structures based on direct solution calorimetric measurements. KFeSO4 F has been reported to crystallize in two different polymorphic modifications-monoclinic and orthorhombic. The obtained enthalpies of formation from binary components (KF plus FeSO4 ) are negative for both polymorphs, indicating that they are thermodynamically stable at room temperature, which is very promising for the future exploration of sulfate based cathode materials. Our measurements show that the low-temperature monoclinic polymorph is enthalpically more stable than the orthorhombic phase by ≈10 kJ mol-1 , which is consistent with the preferential formation of monoclinic KFeSO4 F at low temperature. Furthermore, observed phase transformations and difficulties in the synthesis process can be explained based on the obtained calorimetric results. The KMnSO4 F orthorhombic phase is more stable than both polymorphs of KFeSO4 F.

Direct calorimetric verification of thermodynamic instability of lead halide hybrid perovskites.

Hybrid perovskites, especially methylammonium lead iodide (MAPbI3), exhibit excellent solar power conversion efficiencies. However, their application is plagued by poor chemical and structural stability. Using direct calorimetric measurement of heats of formation, MAPbI3 is shown to be thermodynamically unstable with respect to decomposition to lead iodide and methylammonium iodide, even in the absence of ambient air or light or heat-induced defects, thus limiting its long-term use in devices. The formation enthalpy from binary halide components becomes less favorable in the order MAPbCl3, MAPbBr3, MAPbI3, with only the chloride having a negative heat of formation. Optimizing the geometric match of constituents as measured by the Goldschmidt tolerance factor provides a potentially quantifiable thermodynamic guide for seeking chemical substitutions to enhance stability.

Thermochemistry of Multiferroic Organic-Inorganic Hybrid Perovskites [(CH3)2NH2][M(HCOO)3] (M = Mn, Co, Ni, and Zn).

Organic-inorganic hybrid materials have enormous potential for applications in catalysis, gas storage, sensors, drug delivery, and energy generation, among others. A class of hybrid materials adopts the ABX3 perovskite topology. We report here the synthesis and characterization of an isostructural series of dense hybrid perovskites, [(CH3)2NH2][M(HCOO)3], with M = Mn, Co, Ni, and Zn. These compounds have shown promising multiferroic behavior. Understanding their stability is crucial for their practical application. We report their formation enthalpies based on direct measurement by room-temperature acid solution calorimetry. The enthalpy of formation of this dimethylammonium metal formate series becomes less exothermic in the order Mn, Zn, Co, Ni. The stability of the hybrid perovskite decreases as the tolerance factor increases, unlike trends seen in inorganic perovskites. However, the trends are similar to those seen in a number of ternary transition metal oxides, suggesting that specific bonding interactions rather than geometric factors dominate the energetics.