ABSTRACT
PPM1L, a member of the metal-dependent protein phosphatase (PPM) family, is involved in regulating the stress-activated protein kinase pathway and ceramide trafficking. However, the physiological function of PPM1L in the brain is unclear. In this study, we generated and analyzed ppm1l-deficient mice in order to investigate PPM1L functions in the brain. Our results indicate that ppm1l is highly expressed in the central nervous system during mouse development and that ppm1lΔ/Δ mice display impaired motor performance and morphological abnormalities in the forebrain. Electron microscopic and immunohistochemical analyses suggest that these abnormalities are due to impaired axonal tract formation. Our novel findings suggest an important role for PPM1L in brain development.
Subject(s)
Brain/abnormalities , Phosphoprotein Phosphatases/deficiency , Animals , Brain/growth & development , Brain/metabolism , Gene Expression Regulation, Developmental , MAP Kinase Signaling System , MiceABSTRACT
Transcription is repressed if a DNA double-strand break (DSB) is introduced in close proximity to a transcriptional activation site at least in part by H2A-ubiquitination. While ATM signaling is involved, how it controls H2A-ubiquitination remains unclear. Here, we identify that, in response to DSBs, a transcriptional elongation factor, ENL (MLLT1), is phosphorylated by ATM at conserved SQ sites. This phosphorylation increases the interaction between ENL and the E3-ubiquitin-ligase complex of Polycomb Repressive Complex 1 (PRC1) via BMI1. This interaction promotes enrichment of PRC1 at transcription elongation sites near DSBs to ubiquitinate H2A leading to transcriptional repression. ENL SQ sites and BMI1 are necessary for KU70 accumulation at DSBs near active transcription sites and cellular resistance to DSBs. Our data suggest that ATM-dependent phosphorylation of ENL functions as switch from elongation to Polycomb-mediated repression to preserve genome integrity.
Subject(s)
Ataxia Telangiectasia Mutated Proteins/metabolism , DNA Repair , Neoplasm Proteins/metabolism , Nuclear Proteins/metabolism , Polycomb Repressive Complex 1/metabolism , Transcription Factors/metabolism , Amino Acid Sequence , Ataxia Telangiectasia Mutated Proteins/genetics , Blotting, Western , Cell Line, Tumor , DNA Breaks, Double-Stranded , HEK293 Cells , Humans , Luminescent Proteins/genetics , Luminescent Proteins/metabolism , Microscopy, Confocal , Molecular Sequence Data , Neoplasm Proteins/genetics , Nuclear Proteins/genetics , Phosphorylation , Polycomb Repressive Complex 1/genetics , Protein Binding , RNA Interference , Sequence Homology, Amino Acid , Transcription Factors/genetics , Transcription, GeneticABSTRACT
Bone mass is maintained by the balance between the activities of bone-forming osteoblasts and bone-resorbing osteoclasts. It is well known that adequate mechanical stress is essential for the maintenance of bone mass, whereas excess mechanical stress induces bone resorption. However, it has not been clarified how osteoblasts respond to different magnitudes of mechanical stress. Here we report that large-magnitude (12%) cyclic stretch induced Ca(2+) influx, which activated reactive oxygen species generation in MC3T3-E1 osteoblasts. Reactive oxygen species then activated the ASK1-JNK/p38 pathways. The activated JNK led to transiently enhanced expression of FGF-inducible 14 (Fn14, a member of the TNF receptor superfamily) gene. Cells with enhanced expression of Fn14 subsequently acquired sensitivity to the ligand of Fn14, TNF-related weak inducer of apoptosis, and underwent apoptosis. On the other hand, the ASK1-p38 pathway induced expression of the monocyte chemoattractant protein 3 (MCP-3) gene, which promoted chemotaxis of preosteoclasts. In contrast, the ERK pathway was activated by small-magnitude stretching (1%) and induced expression of two osteogenic genes, collagen Ia (Col1a) and osteopontin (OPN). Moreover, activated JNK suppressed Col1a and OPN induction in large-magnitude mechanical stretch-loaded cells. The enhanced expression of Fn14 and MCP-3 by 12% stretch and the enhanced expression of Col1a and OPN by 1% stretch were also observed in mouse primary osteoblasts. These results suggest that differences in the response of osteoblasts to varying magnitudes of mechanical stress play a key role in switching the mode of bone metabolism between formation and resorption.
Subject(s)
Apoptosis , Gene Expression Regulation , MAP Kinase Kinase Kinase 5/metabolism , Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase 8/metabolism , Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase 9/metabolism , Osteoblasts/physiology , Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor/genetics , Stress, Mechanical , 3T3 Cells , Animals , MAP Kinase Signaling System , Mice , Osteoblasts/metabolism , TWEAK ReceptorABSTRACT
PPM [metal-dependent protein phosphatase, formerly called PP2C (protein phosphatase 2C)] family members play essential roles in regulating a variety of signalling pathways. While searching for protein phosphatase(s) that act on AMPK (AMP-activated protein kinase), we found that PPM1A and PPM1B are N-myristoylated and that this modification is essential for their ability to dephosphorylate the α subunit of AMPK (AMPKα) in cells. N-Myristoylation was also required for two other functions of PPM1A and PPM1B in cells. Although a non-myristoylated mutation (G2A) of PPM1A and PPM1B prevented membrane association, this relocalization did not likely cause the decreased activity towards AMPKα. In in vitro experiments, the G2A mutants exhibited reduced activities towards AMPKα, but much higher specific activity against an artificial substrate, PNPP (p-nitrophenyl phosphate), compared with the wild-type counterparts. Taken together, the results of the present study suggest that N-myristoylation of PPM1A and PPM1B plays a key role in recognition of their physiological substrates in cells.
Subject(s)
Phosphoprotein Phosphatases/metabolism , AMP-Activated Protein Kinases/chemistry , AMP-Activated Protein Kinases/genetics , AMP-Activated Protein Kinases/metabolism , Amino Acid Sequence , Amino Acid Substitution , Animals , Base Sequence , Catalytic Domain/genetics , HEK293 Cells , HeLa Cells , Humans , Mice , Models, Molecular , Mutagenesis, Site-Directed , Myristic Acid/metabolism , Nitrophenols/metabolism , Organophosphorus Compounds/metabolism , Phosphoprotein Phosphatases/chemistry , Phosphoprotein Phosphatases/genetics , Phosphorylation , Protein Phosphatase 2C , Protein Processing, Post-Translational , RNA, Small Interfering/genetics , Recombinant Proteins/chemistry , Recombinant Proteins/genetics , Recombinant Proteins/metabolism , Substrate SpecificityABSTRACT
The metal-dependent protein phosphatase family (PPM) governs a number of signaling pathways. PPM1L, originally identified as a negative regulator of stress-activated protein kinase signaling, was recently shown to be involved in the regulation of ceramide trafficking at ER-Golgi membrane contact sites. Here, we identified acyl-CoA binding domain containing 3 (ACBD3) as an interacting partner of PPM1L. We showed that this association, which recruits PPM1L to ER-Golgi membrane contact sites, is mediated by a GOLD (Golgi dynamics) domain in ACBD3. These results suggested that ACBD3 plays a pivotal role in ceramide transport regulation at the ER-Golgi interface.
Subject(s)
Adaptor Proteins, Signal Transducing/metabolism , Endoplasmic Reticulum/metabolism , Golgi Apparatus/metabolism , Membrane Proteins/metabolism , Phosphoprotein Phosphatases/metabolism , Adaptor Proteins, Signal Transducing/chemistry , Adaptor Proteins, Signal Transducing/genetics , Binding Sites , HEK293 Cells , HeLa Cells , Humans , Membrane Proteins/chemistry , Membrane Proteins/genetics , Models, Biological , Models, Molecular , Phosphoprotein Phosphatases/chemistry , Phosphoprotein Phosphatases/genetics , Protein Interaction Domains and Motifs , Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases/chemistry , Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases/genetics , Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases/metabolism , Protein Transport , Recombinant Fusion Proteins/chemistry , Recombinant Fusion Proteins/genetics , Recombinant Fusion Proteins/metabolism , Signal Transduction , Two-Hybrid System Techniques , Vesicular Transport Proteins/chemistry , Vesicular Transport Proteins/genetics , Vesicular Transport Proteins/metabolismABSTRACT
IL-1 (interleukin-1) is a pro-inflammatory cytokine that has a variety of effects during the process of inflammation. Stimulating cells with IL-1 initiates a signalling cascade that includes the activation of NF-kappaB (nuclear factor kappaB), and subsequently induces a variety of inflammatory genes. Although the molecular mechanism for the IL-1-induced activation of NF-kappaB has been well documented, much less is known about the mechanism by which protein phosphatases down-regulate this pathway. Here we show that mouse PP2Ceta-2 (protein serine/threonine phosphatase 2Ceta-2), a novel member of the protein serine/threonine phosphatase 2C family, inhibits the IL-1-NF-kappaB signalling pathway. Ectopic expression of PP2Ceta-2 in human embryonic kidney HEK293IL-1RI cells inhibited the IL-1-induced activation of NF-kappaB. TAK1 (transforming-growth-factor-beta-activated kinase 1) mediates the IL-1 signalling pathway to NF-kappaB, and we observed that the TAK1-induced activation of NF-kappaB was suppressed by PP2Ceta-2 expression. Expression of IKKbeta [IkappaB (inhibitory kappaB) kinase beta], which lies downstream of TAK1, activates NF-kappaB, and this activation was also readily reversed by PP2Ceta-2 co-expression. Additionally, PP2Ceta-2 knockdown with small interfering RNA further stimulated the IL-1-enhanced phosphorylation of IKKbeta and destabilization of IkappaBalpha in HeLa cells. PP2Ceta-2 knockdown also increased the IL-1-induced expression of IL-6 mRNA. Furthermore, IKKbeta was readily dephosphorylated by PP2Ceta-2 in vitro. These results suggest that PP2Ceta-2 inhibits the IL-1-NF-kappaB signalling pathway by selectively dephosphorylating IKKbeta.
Subject(s)
Interleukin-1/pharmacology , NF-kappa B/antagonists & inhibitors , NF-kappa B/metabolism , Phosphoprotein Phosphatases/physiology , Animals , Cell Nucleus/metabolism , Cells, Cultured , Down-Regulation , HeLa Cells , Humans , I-kappa B Kinase/metabolism , Interleukin-6/genetics , Interleukin-6/metabolism , Isoenzymes/metabolism , Isoenzymes/physiology , Mice , Phosphoprotein Phosphatases/antagonists & inhibitors , Phosphoprotein Phosphatases/metabolism , Phosphorylation , Protein Phosphatase 2C , RNA, Small Interfering/pharmacology , Signal Transduction/drug effectsABSTRACT
The protein phosphatase 2C (PP2C) family represents one of the four major protein Ser/Thr phosphatase activities in mammalian cells and contains at least 13 distinct gene products. Although PP2C family members regulate a variety of cellular functions, mechanisms of regulation of their activities are largely unknown. Here, we show that PP2Czeta, a PP2C family member that is enriched in testicular germ cells, is phosphorylated by c-Jun NH 2-terminal kinase (JNK) but not by p38 in vitro. Mass spectrometry and mutational analyses demonstrated that phosphorylation occurs at Ser (92), Thr (202), and Thr (205) of PP2Czeta. Phosphorylation of these Ser and Thr residues of PP2Czeta ectopically expressed in 293 cells was enhanced by osmotic stress and was attenuated by a JNK inhibitor but not by p38 or MEK inhibitors. Phosphorylation of PP2Czeta by TAK1-activated JNK repressed its phosphatase activity in cells, and alanine mutation at Ser (92) but not at Thr (202) or Thr (205) suppressed this inhibition. Taken together, these results suggest that specific phosphorylation of PP2Czeta at Ser (92) by stress-activated JNK attenuates its phosphatase activity in cells.
