Laminin is the ECM niche for trophoblast stem cells.

The niche is a specialized microenvironment for tissue stem cells in vivo. It has long been emphasized that niche ECM molecules act on tissue stem cells to regulate their behavior, but the molecular entities of these interactions remain to be fully elucidated. Here, we report that laminin forms the in vivo ECM niche for trophoblast stem cells (TSCs), the tissue stem cells of the placenta. TSCs expressed fibronectin-binding, vitronectin-binding, and laminin-binding integrins, whereas the integrin ligands present in the TSC niche were collagen and laminin. Therefore, the only niche integrin ligand available for TSCs in vivo was laminin. Laminin promoted TSC adhesion and proliferation in vitro in an integrin binding-dependent manner. Importantly, when the integrin-binding ability of laminin was genetically ablated in mice, the size of the TSC population was significantly reduced compared with that in control mice. The present findings underscore an ECM niche function of laminin to support tissue stem cell maintenance in vivo.

Molecular profiling of the basement membrane of pluripotent epiblast cells in post-implantation stage mouse embryos.

INTRODUCTION: The basement membrane (BM) is a sheet-like extracellular matrix (ECM) lining the basal side of epithelial and endothelial cells. The molecular composition of the BM diversifies as embryonic development proceeds, providing optimized microenvironments for individual cell types. In post-implantation stage embryos, the embryonic BMs are essential for differentiation of the epiblast, a layer of multipotent embryonic stem cells, and subsequent embryogenesis. To better understand the role of BMs and cell-BM interactions in early embryogenesis, it is imperative to accumulate information on the molecular entities of the embryonic BMs. METHODS: We analyzed the expressions and localizations of 20 major BM proteins (11 laminin subunits, 6 type IV collagen subunits, nidogen-1 and -2, and perlecan) and other ECM-related proteins such as fibronectin and integrins in post-implantation stage embryos by immunohistochemistry. RESULTS: We found that a set of BM proteins, laminin α5, ß1, and γ1 (comprising laminin-511), type IV collagen α1 and α2 (yielding type IV collagen α12α2 [IV]), nidogen-1 and -2, and perlecan, were consistently present in the epiblast/ectoderm BMs throughout the early post-implantation stages. In contrast, laminin α1 was detected in the epiblast BM at E5.5 but decreased in later stages, suggesting that laminin-511 is a major laminin isoform in the early embryonic BM. In addition, fibronectin, a mesenchymal ECM protein, was enriched in the endoderm BM, indicating that the BM compositions differ between the ectoderm and the endoderm. Consistent with these observations, integrin α5, a high-affinity receptor for fibronectin, was localized in the endoderm, while integrin α6, a receptor for laminin-511, was localized in the ectoderm. CONCLUSIONS: The embryonic BMs underlying the epiblast/ectoderm contain a common toolkit comprising laminin-511, type IV collagen (α12α2 [IV]), nidogen-1 and -2, and perlecan, providing a physiological basis for the utility of laminin-511 as a culture substrate for pluripotent stem cells. The distinctive association of laminin-511 and fibronectin with endodermal and ectodermal cells, together with the differential expression of integrin α5 and α6 in these cells, suggests that the ectodermal and endodermal cells rely on their integrin-dependent interactions with laminin-511 and fibronectin, respectively, to ensure their fate specification in embryonic development.

Ventricular-subventricular zone fractones are speckled basement membranes that function as a neural stem cell niche.

Neural stem cells (NSCs) are retained in the adult ventricular-subventricular zone (V-SVZ), a specialized neurogenic niche with a unique cellular architecture. It currently remains unclear whether or how NSCs utilize basement membranes (BMs) in this niche. Here, we examine the molecular compositions and functions of BMs in the adult mouse V-SVZ. Whole-mount V-SVZ immunostaining revealed that fractones, which are fingerlike processes of extravascular BMs, are speckled BMs unconnected to the vasculature, and differ in their molecular composition from vascular BMs. Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-positive astrocytes and NSCs produce and adhere to speckled BMs. Furthermore, Gfap-Cre-mediated Lamc1flox(E1605Q) knockin mice, in which integrin-binding activities of laminins are specifically nullified in GFAP-positive cells, exhibit a decreased number and size of speckled BMs and reduced in vitro neurosphere-forming activity. Our results reveal niche activities of fractones/speckled BMs for NSCs and provide molecular insights into how laminin-integrin interactions regulate NSCs in vivo.

Laminin γ1 C-terminal Glu to Gln mutation induces early postimplantation lethality.

Laminin-integrin interactions regulate various adhesion-dependent cellular processes. γ1C-Glu, the Glu residue in the laminin γ1 chain C-terminal tail, is crucial for the binding of γ1-laminins to several integrin isoforms. Here, we investigated the impact of γ1C Glu to Gln mutation on γ1-laminin binding to all possible integrin partners in vitro, and found that the mutation specifically ablated binding to α3, α6, and α7 integrins. To examine the physiological significance of γ1C-Glu, we generated a knock-in allele, Lamc1 EQ , in which the γ1C Glu to Gln mutation was introduced. Although Lamc1 EQ/EQ homozygotes developed into blastocysts and deposited laminins in their basement membranes, they died just after implantation because of disordered extraembryonic development. Given the impact of the Lamc1 EQ allele on embryonic development, we developed a knock-in mouse strain enabling on-demand introduction of the γ1C Glu to Gln mutation by the Cre-loxP system. The present study has revealed a crucial role of γ1C-Glu-mediated integrin binding in postimplantation development and provides useful animal models for investigating the physiological roles of laminin-integrin interactions in vivo.

Three-dimensional cell shapes and arrangements in human sweat glands as revealed by whole-mount immunostaining.

Because sweat secretion is facilitated by mechanical contraction of sweat gland structures, understanding their structure-function relationship could lead to more effective treatments for patients with sweat gland disorders such as heat stroke. Conventional histological studies have shown that sweat glands are three-dimensionally coiled tubular structures consisting of ducts and secretory portions, although their detailed structural anatomy remains unclear. To better understand the details of the three-dimensional (3D) coiled structures of sweat glands, a whole-mount staining method was employed to visualize 3D coiled gland structures with sweat gland markers for ductal luminal, ductal basal, secretory luminal, and myoepithelial cells. Imaging the 3D coiled gland structures demonstrated that the ducts and secretory portions were comprised of distinct tubular structures. Ductal tubules were occasionally bent, while secretory tubules were frequently bent and formed a self-entangled coiled structure. Whole-mount staining of complex coiled gland structures also revealed the detailed 3D cellular arrangements in the individual sweat gland compartments. Ducts were composed of regularly arranged cuboidal shaped cells, while secretory portions were surrounded by myoepithelial cells longitudinally elongated along entangled secretory tubules. Whole-mount staining was also used to visualize the spatial arrangement of blood vessels and nerve fibers, both of which facilitate sweat secretion. The blood vessels ran longitudinally parallel to the sweat gland tubules, while nerve fibers wrapped around secretory tubules, but not ductal tubules. Taken together, whole-mount staining of sweat glands revealed the 3D cell shapes and arrangements of complex coiled gland structures and provides insights into the mechanical contraction of coiled gland structures during sweat secretion.

Polydom Is an Extracellular Matrix Protein Involved in Lymphatic Vessel Remodeling.

RATIONALE: Lymphatic vasculature constitutes a second vascular system essential for immune surveillance and tissue fluid homeostasis. Maturation of the hierarchical vascular structure, with a highly branched network of capillaries and ducts, is crucial for its function. Environmental cues mediate the remodeling process, but the mechanism that underlies this process is largely unknown. OBJECTIVE: Polydom (also called Svep1) is an extracellular matrix protein identified as a high-affinity ligand for integrin α9ß1. However, its physiological function is unclear. Here, we investigated the role of Polydom in lymphatic development. METHODS AND RESULTS: We generated Polydom-deficient mice. Polydom-/- mice showed severe edema and died immediately after birth because of respiratory failure. We found that although a primitive lymphatic plexus was formed, it failed to undergo remodeling in Polydom-/- embryos, including sprouting of new capillaries and formation of collecting lymphatic vessels. Impaired lymphatic development was also observed after knockdown/knockout of polydom in zebrafish. Polydom was deposited around lymphatic vessels, but secreted from surrounding mesenchymal cells. Expression of Foxc2 (forkhead box protein c2), a transcription factor involved in lymphatic remodeling, was decreased in Polydom-/- mice. Polydom bound to the lymphangiogenic factor Ang-2 (angiopoietin-2), which was found to upregulate Foxc2 expression in cultured lymphatic endothelial cells. Expressions of Tie1/Tie2 receptors for angiopoietins were also decreased in Polydom-/- mice. CONCLUSIONS: Polydom affects remodeling of lymphatic vessels in both mouse and zebrafish. Polydom deposited around lymphatic vessels seems to ensure Foxc2 upregulation in lymphatic endothelial cells, possibly via the Ang-2 and Tie1/Tie2 receptor system.

Isolation and characterization of sweat gland myoepithelial cells from human skin.

Stem cells routinely maintain the main epidermal components, i.e. the interfollicular epidermis, hair follicles, and sweat glands. Human sweat glands present throughout the body are glandular exocrine organs that mainly play a role in thermoregulation by sweating. Emerging evidence points to the presence of stem cells in sweat glands, but it remains unclear whether such stem cells exist in human sweat glands. Here, we attempted to gather evidence for stem cells in human sweat glands, which would be characterized by self-renewal ability and multipotency. First, we explored human sweat gland cells for expression of stem cell markers. CD29 and Notch, epidermal stem cell markers, were found to reside among α-smooth muscle actin-positive myoepithelial cells in human sweat glands. Next, sweat gland myoepithelial cells were isolated from human skin as a CD29(hi)CD49f (hi) subpopulation. The myoepithelial cell-enriched CD29(hi)CD49f (hi) subpopulation possessed the ability to differentiate into sweat gland luminal cells in sphere-forming assays. Furthermore, CD29(hi)CD49f (hi) subpopulation-derived sphere-forming cells exhibited long-term proliferative potential upon multiple passaging, indicating that the CD29(hi)CD49f (hi) myoepithelial subpopulation includes stem cells with self-renewal ability. These findings provide evidence that human sweat gland myoepithelial cells contain stem cells that possess both self-renewal ability and multipotency to differentiate into sweat glands.

Nephronectin binds to heparan sulfate proteoglycans via its MAM domain.

Nephronectin is a basement membrane protein comprising five N-terminal epidermal growth factor (EGF)-like repeats, a central linker segment containing an Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) motif and a C-terminal meprin-A5 protein-receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase µ (MAM) domain. Nephronectin has been shown to interact with α8ß1 integrin through the central linker segment, but its interactions with other molecules remain to be elucidated. Here, we examined the binding of nephronectin to a panel of glycosaminoglycan (GAG) chains. Nephronectin bound strongly to heparin and chondroitin sulfate (CS)-E and moderately to heparan sulfate (HS), but failed to bind to CS-A, CS-C, CS-D, dermatan sulfate and hyaluronic acid. Deletion of the MAM domain severely impaired the binding of nephronectin to heparin but not CS-E, whereas deletion of the EGF-like repeats reduced its binding to CS-E but not heparin, suggesting that nephronectin interacts with CS-E and heparin through the EGF-like repeats and MAM domain, respectively. Consistent with these results, nephronectin bound to agrin and perlecan, which are heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) in basement membranes, in HS-dependent manners. Site-directed mutagenesis of the MAM domain revealed that multiple basic amino acid residues in the putative loop regions were involved in the binding of the MAM domain to agrin. The binding of nephronectin to basement membrane HSPGs was further confirmed by in situ nephronectin overlay assays using mouse frozen tissue sections. Taken together, these findings indicate that nephronectin is capable of binding to HSPGs in basement membranes via the MAM domain, and thereby raise the possibility that interactions with basement membrane HSPGs may be involved in the deposition of nephronectin onto basement membranes.

Polydom/SVEP1 is a ligand for integrin α9ß1.

A variety of proteins, including tenascin-C and osteopontin, have been identified as ligands for integrin α9ß1. However, their affinities for integrin α9ß1 are apparently much lower than those of other integrins (e.g. α3ß1, α5ß1, and α8ß1) for their specific ligands, leaving the possibility that physiological ligands for integrin α9ß1 still remain unidentified. In this study, we found that polydom (also named SVEP1) mediates cell adhesion in an integrin α9ß1-dependent manner and binds directly to recombinant integrin α9ß1 with an affinity that far exceeds those of the known ligands. Using a series of recombinant polydom proteins with N-terminal deletions, we mapped the integrin-binding site to the 21st complement control protein domain. Alanine-scanning mutagenesis revealed that the EDDMMEVPY sequence (amino acids 2636-2644) in the 21st complement control protein domain was involved in the binding to integrin α9ß1 and that Glu(2641) was the critical acidic residue for the integrin binding. The importance of this sequence was further confirmed by integrin binding inhibition assays using synthetic peptides. Immunohistochemical analyses of mouse embryonic tissues showed that polydom colocalized with integrin α9 in the stomach, intestine, and other organs. Furthermore, in situ integrin α9ß1 binding assays using frozen mouse tissues showed that polydom accounts for most, but not all, of the integrin α9ß1 ligands in tissues. Taken together, the present findings indicate that polydom is a hitherto unknown ligand for integrin α9ß1 that functions as a physiological ligand in vivo.

Basement membrane assembly of the integrin α8ß1 ligand nephronectin requires Fraser syndrome-associated proteins.

Dysfunction of the basement membrane protein QBRICK provokes Fraser syndrome, which results in renal dysmorphogenesis, cryptophthalmos, syndactyly, and dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa through unknown mechanisms. Here, we show that integrin α8ß1 binding to basement membranes was significantly impaired in Qbrick-null mice. This impaired integrin α8ß1 binding was not a direct consequence of the loss of QBRICK, which itself is a ligand of integrin α8ß1, because knock-in mice with a mutation in the integrin-binding site of QBRICK developed normally and do not exhibit any defects in integrin α8ß1 binding. Instead, the loss of QBRICK significantly diminished the expression of nephronectin, an integrin α8ß1 ligand necessary for renal development. In vivo, nephronectin associated with QBRICK and localized at the sublamina densa region, where QBRICK was also located. Collectively, these findings indicate that QBRICK facilitates the integrin α8ß1-dependent interactions of cells with basement membranes by regulating the basement membrane assembly of nephronectin and explain why renal defects occur in Fraser syndrome.

Fused pulmonary lobes is a rat model of human Fraser syndrome.

Fused pulmonary lobes (fpl) is a mutant gene that is inherited in an autosomal recessive manner and causes various developmental defects, including fusion of pulmonary lobes, and eyelid and digit anomalies in rats. Since these developmental defects closely resemble those observed in patients with Fraser syndrome, a recessive multiorgan disorder, and its model animals, we investigated whether the abnormal phenotypes observed in fpl/fpl mutant rats are attributable to a genetic disorder similar to Fraser syndrome. At the epidermal basement membrane in fpl/fpl mutant neonates, the expression of QBRICK, a basement membrane protein whose expression is attenuated in Fraser syndrome model mice, was greatly diminished compared with control littermates. Quantitative RT-PCR analyses of Fraser syndrome-related genes revealed that Frem2 transcripts were markedly diminished in QBRICK-negative embryos. Genomic DNA sequencing of the fpl/fpl mutant identified a nonsense mutation that introduced a stop codon at serine 2005 in Frem2. These findings indicate that the fpl mutant is a rat model of human Fraser syndrome.

Activin A binds to perlecan through its pro-region that has heparin/heparan sulfate binding activity.

Activin A, a member of the transforming growth factor-ß family, plays important roles in hormonal homeostasis and embryogenesis. In this study, we produced recombinant human activin A and examined its abilities to bind to extracellular matrix proteins. Recombinant activin A expressed in 293-F cells was purified as complexes of mature dimeric activin A with its pro-region. Among a panel of extracellular matrix proteins tested, recombinant activin A bound to perlecan and agrin, but not to laminins, nidogens, collagens I and IV, fibronectin, and nephronectin. The binding of recombinant activin A to perlecan was inhibited by heparin and high concentrations of NaCl and abolished by heparitinase treatment of perlecan, suggesting that activin A binds to the heparan sulfate chains of perlecan. In support of this possibility, recombinant activin A was capable of directly binding to heparin and heparan sulfate chains. Site-directed mutagenesis of recombinant activin A revealed that clusters of basic amino acid residues, Lys(259)-Lys(263) and Lys(270)-Lys(272), in the pro-region were required for binding to perlecan. Interestingly, deletion of the peptide segment Lys(259)-Gly(277) containing both basic amino acid clusters from the pro-region did not impair the activity of activin A to stimulate Smad-dependent gene expressions, although it completely ablated the perlecan-binding activity. The binding of activin A to basement membrane heparan sulfate proteoglycans through the basic residues in the pro-region was further confirmed by in situ activin A overlay assays using frozen tissue sections. Taken together, the present results indicate that activin A binds to heparan sulfate proteoglycans through its pro-region and thereby regulates its localization within tissues.

[Alteration in antibody-mediated immunity in patients with rituximab-combined chemotherapy and incidence of herpes zoster].

Rituximab, a chimeric monoclonal antibody against the CD20 protein, has an antineoplastic effect resulting from antibody dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) and complement-dependent cytotoxicity (CDC). In patients with rituximab-combined chemotherapy, a decline in immunoglobulin can be observed. This is more likely to cause virus reactivation, such as Herpes (H) zoster. However, this fact has not reported in a large-scale study. In order to research immunodeficiency conditions in patients with rituximab-combined therapy, we examined the alteration in immunoglobulin level throughout the treatment among 205 cases with B-cell lymphoma. We also studied the prevalence of H. zoster in those cases. The IgG level throughout the treatment was measured in 89 patients in the research. The median post-chemotherapy IgG level was 41.1% lower than its pre-chemotherapy IgG level. In 58 cases, the IgG level following chemotherapy was below the normal level. In 22 cases, the IgG level dropped to less than half of the pre-chemotherapy level. H. zoster developed in 17 cases (8.3%). There was no significant difference in IgG level between H. zoster-onset cases and non-H. zoster-onset cases. Antibody-mediated immunity can decrease greatly and prolong in cases with rituximab in combination with chemotherapy. Therefore, infection control is considered to be important.

ADAMTSL-6 is a novel extracellular matrix protein that binds to fibrillin-1 and promotes fibrillin-1 fibril formation.

ADAMTS (A disintegrin and metalloproteinase with thrombospondin motifs)-like (ADAMTSL) proteins, a subgroup of the ADAMTS superfamily, share several domains with ADAMTS proteinases, including thrombospondin type I repeats, a cysteine-rich domain, and an ADAMTS spacer, but lack a catalytic domain. We identified two new members of ADAMTSL proteins, ADAMTSL-6alpha and -6beta, that differ in their N-terminal amino acid sequences but have common C-terminal regions. When transfected into MG63 osteosarcoma cells, both isoforms were secreted and deposited into pericellular matrices, although ADAMTSL-6alpha, in contrast to -6beta, was barely detectable in the conditioned medium. Immunolabeling at the light and electron microscopic levels showed their close association with fibrillin-1-rich microfibrils in elastic connective tissues. Surface plasmon resonance analyses demonstrated that ADAMTSL-6beta binds to the N-terminal half of fibrillin-1 with a dissociation constant of approximately 80 nm. When MG63 cells were transfected or exogenously supplemented with ADAMTSL-6, fibrillin-1 matrix assembly was promoted in the early but not the late stage of the assembly process. Furthermore, ADAMTSL-6 transgenic mice exhibited excessive fibrillin-1 fibril formation in tissues where ADAMTSL-6 was overexpressed. All together, these results indicated that ADAMTSL-6 is a novel microfibril-associated protein that binds directly to fibrillin-1 and promotes fibrillin-1 matrix assembly.

Transcriptome-based systematic identification of extracellular matrix proteins.

Extracellular matrix (ECM), which provides critical scaffolds for all adhesive cells, regulates proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. Different cell types employ customized ECMs, which are thought to play important roles in the generation of so-called niches that contribute to cell-specific functions. The molecular entities of these customized ECMs, however, have not been elucidated. Here, we describe a strategy for transcriptome-wide identification of ECM proteins based on computational screening of >60,000 full-length mouse cDNAs for secreted proteins, followed by in vitro functional assays. These assays screened the candidate proteins for ECM-assembling activities, interactions with other ECM molecules, modifications with glycosaminoglycans, and cell-adhesive activities, and were then complemented with immunohistochemical analysis. We identified 16 ECM proteins, of which seven were localized in basement membrane (BM) zones. The identification of these previously unknown BM proteins allowed us to construct a body map of BM proteins, which represents the comprehensive immunohistochemistry-based expression profiles of the tissue-specific customization of BMs.

Frem3, a member of the 12 CSPG repeats-containing extracellular matrix protein family, is a basement membrane protein with tissue distribution patterns distinct from those of Fras1, Frem2, and QBRICK/Frem1.

A novel protein family characterized by the presence of 12 CSPG repeats and Calx-beta domains includes Fras1, QBRICK/Frem1, Frem2 and Frem3. Although Fras1, QBRICK/Frem1 and Frem2 have been shown to localize at the basement membrane through reciprocal stabilization, it remains unclear whether Frem3 is also deposited at the basement membrane in a similar manner. Here we show that Frem3 localizes at the basement membrane with tissue distribution patterns clearly distinct from those of other 12 CSPG repeats-containing proteins (12-CSPG proteins). In adult mice, Frem3 was present at the basement membrane underlying ductal cells of the salivary gland, retinal ganglion cells, basal cells of epidermis and hair follicles, where other 12-CSPG proteins were barely expressed. In embryos and neonates, the expression of Frem3 transcripts was significantly lower than that of the other 12-CSPG proteins, although Frem3 protein was coexpressed with other 12-CSPG proteins at the basement membranes of retina, renal epithelia and epidermis. Interestingly, Frem3 deposition at the epidermal basement membrane was not severely compromised in blebbing mutant embryos, in which the basement membrane deposition of other 12-CSPG proteins was dramatically reduced due to the breakdown of their reciprocal stabilization. These results indicate that Frem3 is a basement membrane protein that is distinct from other 12-CSPG proteins in its tissue distribution and competence to assemble into the basement membrane.

Site-specific phosphorylation of SCG10 in neuronal plasticity: role of Ser73 phosphorylation by N-methyl D-aspartic acid receptor activation in rat hippocampus.

Accumulated evidence suggests that actin and microtubule regulating proteins contribute to neuronal structural dynamics, which subsequently affect neuronal plasticity. SCG10 is a neuronal-specific stathmin protein with microtubule destabilizing activity that is affected by multiple phosphorylation, at least in vitro. SCG10 has four major phosphorylation sites: Ser50 and Ser97 targeted by protein kinase A (PKA), and Ser62 and Ser73 targeted by mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK). To explore the potential roles of site-specific phosphorylation in physiological models, we developed phosphorylation site-specific antibodies and examined the SCG10 status in primary cultured hippocampal neurons and tissues. Although SCG10 is concentrated in growth cones and the Golgi apparatus in primary cultured neurons, the phosphorylated form was also detected in both regions, suggesting that MT dynamics within the growth cone may be regulated by protein phosphorylation. In the adult hippocampus, an intense stimulus such as kainate treatment induced a rapid phosphorylation of Ser73 within 15 min that was sustained for at least 60 min. This response was mediated through the N-methyl D-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptor and was ablated by the antagonist MK-801. The MAPK enzyme Erk2 was simultaneously activated along a similar time course to SCG10, suggesting that Erk2 may directly phosphorylate Ser73. These results demonstrate that changes in the phosphorylation status of SCG10 in vivo, dependent upon neural activity and/or plasticity, could affect the microtubule dynamics in neuronal dendrites.

Alteration of urinary sorbitol excretion in WBN-kob diabetic rats - treatment with an aldose reductase inhibitor.

An accelerated polyol pathway in diabetes contributes to the development of diabetic complications. To elucidate diabetic nephropathy involving also renal tubular damage, we measured urinary sorbitol concentration concomitantly with urinary N-acetyl-D-glucosaminidase (NAG) excretion in WBN-kob diabetic rats.Twenty-four-hour urinary sorbitol concentrations increased in the diabetic rats in parallel with whole blood sorbitol concentrations. An increase in 24-h urinary NAG excretion coincided with the elevated urinary sorbitol levels in the diabetic rats. The administration of epalrestat, an aldose reductase inhibitor, reduced the increased whole blood and urinary sorbitol concentrations and urinary NAG excretion concomitantly with renal aldose reductase inhibition in the diabetic rats. These results indicate that diabetic nephropathy involves distorted cell function of renal tubules, and that treatment with epalrestat may prevent at least the progress of the nephropathy.

Urinary sorbitol measurement and the effect of an aldose reductase inhibitor on its concentration in the diabetic state.

The amounts of sorbitol (SOR) excreted in 24-h urine were determined on two groups, i.e., diabetic and nondiabetic patients, using an improved method in which ion exchange resin column processing was applied, and these levels were compared with SOR levels in whole blood. Urinary SOR concentration was also determined in diabetic and normal rats in the same manner and its relationship to aldose reductase (AR) activity in whole blood was investigated. Changes in SOR levels in urine and whole blood were compared in diabetic rats after administration of an AR inhibitor (ARI). Whole blood SOR levels and urinary SOR excretion were significantly higher in diabetic patients than in nondiabetic patients. The same results were obtained in the animal models. In diabetic rats, the urinary SOR excretion was about five times higher than that in control rats, and the AR activity in whole blood was also significantly higher. The increase in urinary SOR excretion and whole blood SOR levels, as well as AR activity, in blood in the diabetic state was inhibited by ARI administration. The influence of the diabetic state and the efficacy of the ARI were more marked in urinary SOR excretion than in whole blood SOR levels. These data indicate that determinations of urinary SOR excretion and AR activity are easily measurable and of benefit to assessing the diabetic condition.

Comparative expression profiles of Trk receptors and Shc-related phosphotyrosine adapters during retinal development: potential roles of N-Shc/ShcC in brain-derived neurotrophic factor signal transduction and modulation.

Neurotrophins (NTs) have multiple roles in retinal development and survival, which are mediated through their specific receptors and signaling molecules. An emerging family of adapter protein, Shc (Src homology and collagen)-related molecules, i.e., Shc/ShcA, Sck/ShcB, and N-Shc/ShcC, has been implicated in various phosphotyrosine signal transduction mechanisms, including that for NTs. To explore the potential role(s) of Shc-related adapters in NT signaling in the retina, we compared the developmental changes of the mRNA expression of TrkA -B, and -C in the rat retina, on one hand and, on the other hand, studied which members of the Shc family were activated after brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) application in axotomized rat retinas. Early in development, both TrkA and ShcA were highly expressed, whereas, in late development to adulthood, TrkB/C and ShcB/C were highly expressed. In the mature retinal ganglion cell layer, the expression of ShcB/C and TrkB/C was evident. Immunoreactivity of ShcC was located in the retinal ganglion cells, amacrine cells, and inner plexiform layer. The response of ShcC following retinal axotomy was most profound with the administration of BDNF, and there was some response with neurotrophin-3. These results indicate that ShcC could be a potential phosphotyrosine adapter among the Shc family members for BDNF signaling and function during retinal development and regeneration in vivo.