BDNF- and VEGF-Responsive Stimulus to an NGF Mimic Cyclic Peptide with Copper Ionophore Capability and Ctr1/CCS-Driven Signaling.

Neurotrophins are a family of growth factors that play a key role in the development and regulation of the functioning of the central nervous system. Their use as drugs is made difficult by their poor stability, cellular permeability, and side effects. Continuing our effort to use peptides that mimic the neurotrophic growth factor (NGF), the family model protein, and specifically the N-terminus of the protein, here we report on the spectroscopic characterization and resistance to hydrolysis of the 14-membered cyclic peptide reproducing the N-terminus sequence (SSSHPIFHRGEFSV (c-NGF(1-14)). Far-UV CD spectra and a computational study show that this peptide has a rigid conformation and left-handed chirality typical of polyproline II that favors its interaction with the D5 domain of the NGF receptor TrkA. c-NGF(1-14) is able to bind Cu2+ with good affinity; the resulting complexes have been characterized by potentiometric and spectroscopic measurements. Experiments on PC12 cells show that c-NGF(1-14) acts as an ionophore, influencing the degree and the localization of both the membrane transporter (Ctr1) and the copper intracellular transporter (CCS). c-NGF(1-14) induces PC12 differentiation, mimics the protein in TrkA phosphorylation, and activates the kinase cascade, inducing Erk1/2 phosphorylation. c-NGF(1-14) biological activities are enhanced when the peptide interacts with Cu2+ even with the submicromolar quantities present in the culture media as demonstrated by ICP-OES measurements. Finally, c-NGF(1-14) and Cu2+ concur to activate the cAMP response element-binding protein CREB that, in turn, induces the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) release.

The role of sperm-specific glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase in the development of pathologies-from asthenozoospermia to carcinogenesis.

The review considers various aspects of the influence of the glycolytic enzyme, sperm-specific glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDS) on the energy metabolism of spermatozoa and on the occurrence of several pathologies both in spermatozoa and in other cells. GAPDS is a unique enzyme normally found only in mammalian spermatozoa. GAPDS provides movement of the sperm flagellum through the ATP formation in glycolytic reactions. Oxidation of cysteine residues in GAPDS results in inactivation of the enzyme and decreases sperm motility. In particular, reduced sperm motility in diabetes can be associated with GAPDS oxidation by superoxide anion produced during glycation reactions. Mutations in GAPDS gene lead in the loss of motility, and in some cases, disrupts the formation of the structural elements of the sperm flagellum, in which the enzyme incorporates during spermiogenesis. GAPDS activation can be used to increase the spermatozoa fertility, and inhibitors of this enzyme are being tried as contraceptives. A truncated GAPDS lacking the N-terminal fragment of 72 amino acids that attaches the enzyme to the sperm flagellum was found in melanoma cell lines and then in specimens of melanoma and other tumors. Simultaneous production of the somatic form of GAPDH and sperm-specific GAPDS in cancer cells leads to a reorganization of their energy metabolism, which is accompanied by a change in the efficiency of metastasis of certain forms of cancer. Issues related to the use of GAPDS for the diagnosis of cancer, as well as the possibility of regulating the activity of this enzyme to prevent metastasis, are discussed.

Copper(II) Complexes with Carnosine Conjugates of Hyaluronic Acids at Different Dipeptide Loading Percentages Behave as Multiple SOD Mimics and Stimulate Nrf2 Translocation and Antioxidant Response in In Vitro Inflammatory Model.

A series of copper(II) complexes with the formula [Cu2+Hy(x)Car%] varying the molecular weight (MW) of Hyaluronic acid (Hy, x = 200 or 700 kDa) conjugated with carnosine (Car) present at different loading were synthesized and characterized via different spectroscopic techniques. The metal complexes behaved as Cu, Zn-superoxide dismutase (SOD1) mimics and showed some of the most efficient reaction rate values produced using a synthetic and water-soluble copper(II)-based SOD mimic reported to date. The increase in the percentage of Car moieties parallels the enhancement of the I50 value determined via the indirect method of Fridovich. The presence of the non-functionalized Hy OH groups favors the scavenger activity of the copper(II) complexes with HyCar, recalling similar behavior previously found for the copper(II) complexes with Car conjugated using ß-cyclodextrin or trehalose. In keeping with the new abilities of SOD1 to activate protective agents against oxidative stress in rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis diseases, Cu2+ interaction with HyCar promotes the nuclear translocation of erythroid 2-related factor that regulates the expressions of target genes, including Heme-Oxigenase-1, thus stimulating an antioxidant response in osteoblasts subjected to an inflammatory/oxidative insult.

Prospects for the Use of Metal-Based Nanoparticles as Adjuvants for Local Cancer Immunotherapy.

Immunotherapy is among the most effective approaches for treating cancer. One of the key aspects for successful immunotherapy is to achieve a strong and stable antitumor immune response. Modern immune checkpoint therapy demonstrates that cancer can be defeated. However, it also points out the weaknesses of immunotherapy, as not all tumors respond to therapy and the co-administration of different immunomodulators may be severely limited due to their systemic toxicity. Nevertheless, there is an established way through which to increase the immunogenicity of immunotherapy-by the use of adjuvants. These enhance the immune response without inducing such severe adverse effects. One of the most well-known and studied adjuvant strategies to improve immunotherapy efficacy is the use of metal-based compounds, in more modern implementation-metal-based nanoparticles (MNPs), which are exogenous agents that act as danger signals. Adding innate immune activation to the main action of an immunomodulator makes it capable of eliciting a robust anti-cancer immune response. The use of an adjuvant has the peculiarity of a local administration of the drug, which positively affects its safety. In this review, we will consider the use of MNPs as low-toxicity adjuvants for cancer immunotherapy, which could provide an abscopal effect when administered locally.

Trehalose-Carnosine Prevents the Effects of Spinal Cord Injury Through Regulating Acute Inflammation and Zinc(II) Ion Homeostasis.

Spinal cord injury (SCI) leads to long-term and permanent motor dysfunctions, and nervous system abnormalities. Injury to the spinal cord triggers a signaling cascade that results in activation of the inflammatory cascade, apoptosis, and Zn(II) ion homeostasis. Trehalose (Tre), a nonreducing disaccharide, and L-carnosine (Car), (ß-alanyl-L-histidine), one of the endogenous histidine dipeptides have been recognized to suppress early inflammatory effects, oxidative stress and to possess neuroprotective effects. We report on the effects of the conjugation of Tre with Car (Tre-car) in reducing inflammation in in vitro and in vivo models. The in vitro study was performed using rat pheochromocytoma cells (PC12 cell line). After 24 h, Tre-car, Car, Tre, and Tre + Car mixture treatments, cells were collected and used to investigate Zn2+ homeostasis. The in vivo model of SCI was induced by extradural compression of the spinal cord at the T6-T8 levels. After treatments with Tre, Car and Tre-Car conjugate 1 and 6 h after SCI, spinal cord tissue was collected for analysis. In vitro results demonstrated the ionophore effect and chelating features of L-carnosine and its conjugate. In vivo, the Tre-car conjugate treatment counteracted the activation of the early inflammatory cascade, oxidative stress and apoptosis after SCI. The Tre-car conjugate stimulated neurotrophic factors release, and influenced Zn2+ homeostasis. We demonstrated that Tre-car, Tre and Car treatments improved tissue recovery after SCI. Tre-car decreased proinflammatory, oxidative stress mediators release, upregulated neurotrophic factors and restored Zn2+ homeostasis, suggesting that Tre-car may represent a promising therapeutic agent for counteracting the consequences of SCI.

Vitamin E and Non-Communicable Diseases: A Review.

Vitamin E, a nutrient found in several foods, comprises eight lipophilic vitamers, the α-, ß-, γ- and δ-tocopherols and the α-, ß-, γ- and δ-tocotrienols. This vitamin is capable of exerting antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, and acting as immunomodulators. Despite these well-known biological activities, the findings regarding the ability of vitamin E and its serum metabolites to prevent and/or control chronic disease are often conflicting and inconsistent. In this review, we have described the metabolism of vitamin E and its interaction with the gut microbiota, considering that these factors may be partially responsible for the divergent results obtained. In addition, we focused on the correlations between vitamin E serum levels, dietary intake and/or supplementation, and the main non-communicable diseases, including diabetes mellitus, asthma, cardiovascular diseases, and the four most common cancers (breast cancer, lung cancer, colorectal cancer, and prostate cancer) with the intention of providing an overview of its health effects in the non-communicable-diseases prevention.

A Deeper Insight in Metal Binding to the hCtr1 N-terminus Fragment: Affinity, Speciation and Binding Mode of Binuclear Cu2+ and Mononuclear Ag+ Complex Species.

Ctr1 regulates copper uptake and its intracellular distribution. The first 14 amino acid sequence of the Ctr1 ectodomain Ctr1(1-14) encompasses the characteristic Amino Terminal Cu2+ and Ni2+ binding motif (ATCUN) as well as the bis-His binding motif (His5 and His6). We report a combined thermodynamic and spectroscopic (UV-vis, CD, EPR) study dealing with the formation of Cu2+ homobinuclear complexes with Ctr1(1-14), the percentage of which is not negligible even in the presence of a small Cu2+ excess and clearly prevails at a M/L ratio of 1.9. Ascorbate fails to reduce Cu2+ when bound to the ATCUN motif, while it reduces Cu2+ when bound to the His5-His6 motif involved in the formation of binuclear species. The histidine diade characterizes the second binding site and is thought to be responsible for ascorbate oxidation. Binding constants and speciation of Ag+ complexes with Ctr1(1-14), which are assumed to mimic Cu+ interaction with N-terminus of Ctr1(1-14), were also determined. A preliminary immunoblot assay evidences that the anti-Ctr1 extracellular antibody recognizes Ctr1(1-14) in a different way from the longer Ctr1(1-25) that encompasses a second His and Met rich domain.

Semax, a Synthetic Regulatory Peptide, Affects Copper-Induced Abeta Aggregation and Amyloid Formation in Artificial Membrane Models.

Alzheimer's disease, the most common form of dementia, is characterized by the aggregation of amyloid beta protein (Aß). The aggregation and toxicity of Aß are strongly modulated by metal ions and phospholipidic membranes. In particular, Cu2+ ions play a pivotal role in modulating Aß aggregation. Although in the last decades several natural or synthetic compounds were evaluated as candidate drugs, to date, no treatments are available for the pathology. Multifunctional compounds able to both inhibit fibrillogenesis, and in particular the formation of oligomeric species, and prevent the formation of the Aß:Cu2+ complex are of particular interest. Here we tested the anti-aggregating properties of a heptapeptide, Semax, an ACTH-like peptide, which is known to form a stable complex with Cu2+ ions and has been proven to have neuroprotective and nootropic effects. We demonstrated through a combination of spectrofluorometric, calorimetric, and MTT assays that Semax not only is able to prevent the formation of Aß:Cu2+ complexes but also has anti-aggregating and protective properties especially in the presence of Cu2+. The results suggest that Semax inhibits fiber formation by interfering with the fibrillogenesis of Aß:Cu2+ complexes.

Ionophore Ability of Carnosine and Its Trehalose Conjugate Assists Copper Signal in Triggering Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor and Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Activation In Vitro.

l-carnosine (ß-alanyl-l-histidine) (Car hereafter) is a natural dipeptide widely distributed in mammalian tissues and reaching high concentrations (0.7-2.0 mM) in the brain. The molecular features of the dipeptide underlie the antioxidant, anti-aggregating and metal chelating ability showed in a large number of physiological effects, while the biological mechanisms involved in the protective role found against several diseases cannot be explained on the basis of the above-mentioned properties alone, requiring further research efforts. It has been reported that l-carnosine increases the secretion and expression of various neurotrophic factors and affects copper homeostasis in nervous cells inducing Cu cellular uptake in keeping with the key metal-sensing system. Having in mind this l-carnosine ability, here we report the copper-binding and ionophore ability of l-carnosine to activate tyrosine kinase cascade pathways in PC12 cells and stimulate the expression of BDNF. Furthermore, the study was extended to verify the ability of the dipeptide to favor copper signaling inducing the expression of VEGF. Being aware that the potential protective action of l-carnosine is drastically hampered by its hydrolysis, we also report on the behavior of a conjugate of l-carnosine with trehalose that blocks the carnosinase degradative activity. Overall, our findings describe a copper tuning effect on the ability of l-carnosine and, particularly its conjugate, to activate tyrosine kinase cascade pathways.

Protocatechuic Acid, a Simple Plant Secondary Metabolite, Induced Apoptosis by Promoting Oxidative Stress through HO-1 Downregulation and p21 Upregulation in Colon Cancer Cells.

Gastrointestinal cancers, particularly colorectal cancer, are mainly influenced by the dietary factor. A diet rich in fruits and vegetables can help to reduce the incidence of colorectal cancer thanks to the phenolic compounds, which possess antimutagenic and anticarcinogenic properties. Polyphenols, alongside their well-known antioxidant properties, also show a pro-oxidative potential, which makes it possible to sensitize tumor cells to oxidative stress. HO-1 combined with antioxidant activity, when overexpressed in cancer cells, is involved in tumor progression, and its inhibition is considered a feasible therapeutic strategy in cancer treatment. In this study, the effects of protocatechuic acid (PCA) on the viability of colon cancer cells (CaCo-2), annexin V, LDH release, reactive oxygen species levels, total thiol content, HO-1, γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase, and p21 expression were evaluated. PCA induced, in a dose-dependent manner, a significantly reduced cell viability of CaCo-2 by oxidative/antioxidant imbalance. The phenolic acid induced modifications in levels of HO-1, non-proteic thiol groups, γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase, reactive oxygen species, and p21. PCA induced a pro-oxidant effect in cancer cells, and the in vitro pro-apoptotic effect on CaCo-2 cells is mediated by the modulation of redox balance and the inhibition of the HO-1 system that led to the activation of p21. Our results suggest that PCA may represent a useful tool in prevention and/or therapy of colon cancer.

mPEG-PLGA Nanoparticles Labelled with Loaded or Conjugated Rhodamine-B for Potential Nose-to-Brain Delivery.

Nowdays, neurodegenerative diseases represent a great challenge from both the therapeutic and diagnostic points of view. Indeed, several physiological barriers of the body, including the blood brain barrier (BBB), nasal, dermal, and intestinal barriers, interpose between the development of new drugs and their effective administration to reach the target organ or target cells at therapeutic concentrations. Currently, the nose-to-brain delivery with nanoformulations specifically designed for intranasal administration is a strategy widely investigated with the goal to reach the brain while bypassing the BBB. To produce nanosystems suitable to study both in vitro and/or in vivo cells trafficking for potential nose-to-brain delivery route, we prepared and characterized two types of fluorescent poly(ethylene glycol)-methyl-ether-block-poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA-PEG) nanoparticles (PNPs), i.e., Rhodamine B (RhB) dye loaded- and grafted- PNPs, respectively. The latter were produced by blending into the PLGA-PEG matrix a RhB-labeled polyaspartamide/polylactide graft copolymer to ensure a stable fluorescence during the time of analysis. Photon correlation spectroscopy (PCS), UV-visible (UV-vis) spectroscopies, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), atomic force microscopy (AFM) were used to characterize the RhB-loaded and RhB-grafted PNPs. To assess their potential use for brain targeting, cytotoxicity tests were carried out on olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) and neuron-like differentiated PC12 cells. Both PNP types showed mean sizes suitable for nose-to-brain delivery (<200 nm, PDI < 0.3) and were not cytotoxic toward OECs in the concentration range tested, while a reduction in the viability on PC12 cells was found when higher concentrations of nanomedicines were used. Both the RhB-labelled NPs are suitable drug carrier models for exploring cellular trafficking in nose-to-brain delivery for short-time or long-term studies.

Hyaluronan-carnosine conjugates inhibit Aß aggregation and toxicity.

Alzheimer's disease is the most common neurodegenerative disorder. Finding a pharmacological approach that cures and/or prevents the onset of this devastating disease represents an important challenge for researchers. According to the amyloid cascade hypothesis, increases in extracellular amyloid-ß (Aß) levels give rise to different aggregated species, such as protofibrils, fibrils and oligomers, with oligomers being the more toxic species for cells. Many efforts have recently been focused on multi-target ligands to address the multiple events that occur concurrently with toxic aggregation at the onset of the disease. Moreover, investigating the effect of endogenous compounds or a combination thereof is a promising approach to prevent the side effects of entirely synthetic drugs. In this work, we report the synthesis, structural characterization and Aß antiaggregant ability of new derivatives of hyaluronic acid (Hy, 200 and 700 kDa) functionalized with carnosine (Car), a multi-functional natural dipeptide. The bioactive substances (HyCar) inhibit the formation of amyloid-type aggregates of Aß42 more than the parent compounds; this effect is proportional to Car loading. Furthermore, the HyCar derivatives are able to dissolve the amyloid fibrils and to reduce Aß-induced toxicity in vitro. The enzymatic degradation of Aß is also affected by the interaction with HyCar.

Copper complexes of synthetic peptides mimicking neurotrophin-3 enhance neurite outgrowth and CREB phosphorylation.

In this work we report on the synthesis and physiochemical/biological characterization of a peptide encompassing the first thirteen residues of neurotrophin-3 (NT-3). The protein capability to promote neurite outgrowth and axonal branching by a downstream mechanism that involves the increase of the cAMP response element-binding level (CREB) was found for the NT3(1-13) peptide, thus validating its protein mimetic behaviour. Since copper ions are also involved in neurotransmission and their internalization may be an essential step in neuron differentiation and CREB phosphorylation, the peptide and its copper complexes were characterized by potentiometric and spectroscopic techniques, including UV-visible, CD and EPR. To have a detailed picture of the coordination features of the copper complexes with NT3(1-13), we also scrutinized the two peptide fragments encompassing the shorter sequences 1-5 and 5-13, respectively, showing that the amino group is the main anchoring site for Cu(ii) at physiological pH. The peptide activity increased in the presence of copper ions. The effect of copper(ii) addition is more marked for NT3(1-13) than the other two peptide fragments, in agreement with its higher affinity for metal ions. Confocal microscopy measurements carried out on fluorescently labelled NT3(1-13) indicated that copper ions increase peptide internalization.

A Tunable Nanoplatform of Nanogold Functionalised with Angiogenin Peptides for Anti-Angiogenic Therapy of Brain Tumours.

Angiogenin (ANG), an endogenous protein that plays a key role in cell growth and survival, has been scrutinised here as promising nanomedicine tool for the modulation of pro-/anti-angiogenic processes in brain cancer therapy. Specifically, peptide fragments from the putative cell membrane binding domain (residues 60-68) of the protein were used in this study to obtain peptide-functionalised spherical gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) of about 10 nm and 30 nm in optical and hydrodynamic size, respectively. Different hybrid biointerfaces were fabricated by peptide physical adsorption (Ang60-68) or chemisorption (the cysteine analogous Ang60-68Cys) at the metal nanoparticle surface, and cellular assays were performed in the comparison with ANG-functionalised AuNPs. Cellular treatments were performed both in basal and in copper-supplemented cell culture medium, to scrutinise the synergic effect of the metal, which is another known angiogenic factor. Two brain cell lines were investigated in parallel, namely tumour glioblastoma (A172) and neuron-like differentiated neuroblastoma (d-SH-SY5Y). Results on cell viability/proliferation, cytoskeleton actin, angiogenin translocation and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) release pointed to the promising potentialities of the developed systems as anti-angiogenic tunable nanoplaftforms in cancer cells treatment.

The Copper(II)-Assisted Connection between NGF and BDNF by Means of Nerve Growth Factor-Mimicking Short Peptides.

Nerve growth factor (NGF) is a protein necessary for development and maintenance of the sympathetic and sensory nervous systems. We have previously shown that the NGF N-terminus peptide NGF(1-14) is sufficient to activate TrkA signaling pathways essential for neuronal survival and to induce an increase in brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression. Cu2+ ions played a critical role in the modulation of the biological activity of NGF(1-14). Using computational, spectroscopic, and biochemical techniques, here we report on the ability of a newly synthesized peptide named d-NGF(1-15), which is the dimeric form of NGF(1-14), to interact with TrkA. We found that d-NGF(1-15) interacts with the TrkA-D5 domain and induces the activation of its signaling pathways. Copper binding to d-NGF(1-15) stabilizes the secondary structure of the peptides, suggesting a strengthening of the noncovalent interactions that allow for the molecular recognition of D5 domain of TrkA and the activation of the signaling pathways. Intriguingly, the signaling cascade induced by the NGF peptides ultimately involves cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) activation and an increase in BDNF protein level, in keeping with our previous result showing an increase of BDNF mRNA. All these promising connections can pave the way for developing interesting novel drugs for neurodegenerative diseases.

Cytotoxic phenanthroline derivatives alter metallostasis and redox homeostasis in neuroblastoma cells.

Copper homeostasis is generally investigated focusing on a single component of the metallostasis network. Here we address several of the factors controlling the metallostasis for neuroblastoma cells (SH-SY5Y) upon treatment with 2,9-dimethyl-1,10-phenanthroline-5,6-dione (phendione) and 2,9-dimethyl-1,10-phenanthroline (cuproindione). These compounds bind and transport copper inside cells, exert their cytotoxic activity through the induction of oxidative stress, causing apoptosis and alteration of the cellular redox and copper homeostasis network. The intracellular pathway ensured by copper transporters (Ctr1, ATP7A), chaperones (CCS, ATOX, COX 17, Sco1, Sco2), small molecules (GSH) and transcription factors (p53) is scrutinised.

Gold nanoparticles functionalized with angiogenin-mimicking peptides modulate cell membrane interactions.

Angiogenin is a protein crucial in angiogenesis, and it is overexpressed in many cancers and downregulated in neurodegenerative diseases, respectively. The protein interaction with actin, through the loop encompassing the 60-68 residues, is an essential step in the cellular cytoskeleton reorganization. This, in turn, influences the cell proliferation and migration processes. In this work, hybrid nanoassemblies of gold nanoparticles with angiogenin fragments containing the 60-68 sequence were prepared and characterized in their interaction with both model membranes of supported lipid bilayers (SLBs) and cellular membranes of cancer (neuroblastoma) and normal (fibroblasts) cell lines. The comparison between physisorption and chemisorption mechanisms was performed by the parallel investigation of the 60-68 sequence and the peptide analogous containing an extra cysteine residue. Moreover, steric hindrance and charge effects were considered with a third analogous peptide sequence, conjugated with a fluorescent carboxyfluorescein (Fam) moiety. The hybrid nanobiointerface was characterized by means of ultraviolet-visible, atomic force microscopy and circular dichroism, to scrutinize plasmonic changes, nanoparticles coverage and conformational features, respectively. Lateral diffusion measurements on SLBs "perturbed" by the interaction with the gold nanoparticles-peptides point to a stronger membrane interaction in comparison with the uncoated nanoparticles. Cell viability and proliferation assays indicate a slight nanotoxicity in neuroblastoma cells and a proliferative activity in fibroblasts. The actin staining confirms different levels of interaction between the hybrid assemblies and the cell membranes.

Influence of the N-terminus acetylation of Semax, a synthetic analog of ACTH(4-10), on copper(II) and zinc(II) coordination and biological properties.

Semax is a heptapeptide (Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro) that encompasses the sequence 4-7 of N-terminal domain of the adrenocorticotropic hormone and a C-terminal Pro-Gly-Pro tripeptide. N-terminal amino group acetylation (Ac-Semax) modulates the chemical and biological properties of parental peptide, modifying the ability of Semax to form complex species with Cu(II) ion. At physiological pH, the main complex species formed by Ac-Semax, [CuLH-2]2-, consists in a distorted CuN3O chromophore with a weak apical interaction of the methionine sulphur. Such a complex differs from the Cu(II)-Semax complex system, which exhibits a CuN4 chromophore. The reduced ligand field affects the [CuLH-2]2- formal redox potential, which is more positive than that of Cu(II)-Semax corresponding species. In the amino-free form, the resulting complex species is redox-stable and unreactive against ascorbic acid, unlike the acetylated form. Semax acetylation did not protect from Cu(II) induced toxicity on a SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cell line, thus demonstrating the crucial role played by the free NH2 terminus in the cell protection. Since several brain diseases are associated either to Cu(II) or Zn(II) dyshomeostasis, here we characterized also the complex species formed by Zn(II) with Semax and Ac-Semax. Both peptides were able to form Zn(II) complex species with comparable strength. Confocal microscopy imaging confirmed that peptide group acetylation does not affect the Zn(II) influx in neuroblastoma cells. Moreover, a punctuate distribution of Zn(II) within the cells suggests a preferred subcellular localization that might explain the zinc toxic effect. A future perspective can be the use of Ac-Semax as ionophore in antibody drug conjugates to produce a dysmetallostasis in tumor cells.

Ac-LPFFD-Th: A Trehalose-Conjugated Peptidomimetic as a Strong Suppressor of Amyloid-ß Oligomer Formation and Cytotoxicity.

The inhibition of amyloid formation is a promising therapeutic approach for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Peptide-based inhibitors, which have been widely investigated, are generally derived from original amyloid sequences. Most interestingly, trehalose, a nonreducing disaccharide of α-glucose, is effective in preventing the aggregation of numerous proteins. We have determined that the development of hybrid compounds could provide new molecules with improved properties that might synergically increase the potency of their single moieties. In this work, the ability of Ac-LPFFD-Th, a C-terminally trehalose-conjugated derivative, to slow down the Aß aggregation process was investigated by means of different biophysical techniques, including thioflavin T fluorescence, dynamic light scattering, ESI-MS, and NMR spectroscopy. Moreover, we demonstrate that Ac-LPFFD-Th modifies the aggregation features of Aß and protects neurons from Aß oligomers' toxic insult.