A qualitative study of secondary distribution of HIV self-test kits by female sex workers in Kenya.

Promoting awareness of serostatus and frequent HIV testing is especially important among high risk populations such as female sex workers (FSW) and their sexual partners. HIV self-testing is an approach that is gaining ground in sub-Saharan Africa as a strategy to increase knowledge of HIV status and promote safer sexual decisions. However, little is known about self-test distribution strategies that are optimal for increasing testing access among hard-to-reach and high risk individuals. We conducted a qualitative study with 18 FSW who participated in a larger study that provided them with five oral fluid-based self-tests, training on how to use the tests, and encouragement to offer the self-tests to their sexual partners using their discretion. Women demonstrated agency in the strategies they used to introduce self-tests to their partners and to avoid conflict with partners. They carefully considered with whom to share self-tests, often assessing the possibility for negative reactions from partners as part of their decision making process. When women faced negative reactions from partners, they drew on strategies they had used before to avoid conflict and physical harm from partners, such as not responding to angry partners and forgoing payment to leave angry partners quickly. Some women also used self-tests to make more informed sexual decisions with their partners.

HIV infection among children and adolescents in Burundi, Cameroon, and the Democratic Republic of Congo.

Evidence demonstrates a substantial HIV epidemic among children and adolescents in countries with long-standing generalized HIV epidemics, where availability of prevention of mother-to-child transmission services has historically been limited. The objective of this research was to explore factors associated with antiretroviral therapy (ART) initiation and morbidity among HIV-infected surviving children 2-17 years of age attending HIV programs in Central Africa. Programmatic data from 404 children attending HIV programs in Burundi, Cameroon, and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) were included in our evaluation. Children were followed prospectively from 2008 to 2011 according to each clinic's standard of care. Diagnosis at a reference hospital was significantly associated with not having initiated ART (adjusted odds ratio, AOR = 0.40; 95% confidence interval, CI, 0.24-0.67). Being seen at a clinic in Cameroon (AOR = 0.45; 95%CI = 0.24-0.85) and being in school were associated with decreased risk (AOR = 0.55; 95%CI = 0.31-0.96). Being ART-naïve (AOR = 1.88; 95%CI = 1.20-2.94) and being diagnosed at a reference hospital (AOR = 2.39; 95%CI = 1.29-4.41) or other testing facility (AOR = 2.86; 95%CI = 1.32-6.18) were associated with increased risk of having a morbid event at the initial visit. In longitudinal analysis of incident morbidity, we found a decreased risk associated with attending clinics in Cameroon (adjusted hazard ratio, AHR = 0.23; 95%CI = 0.11-0.46) and the DRC (AHR = 0.46; 95%CI = 0.29-0.74), and an increased risk associated with being ART-naïve (AHR = 1.83; 95%CI = 1.12-2.97). We found a high burden of HIV-related health problems among children receiving care in this setting. Children face significant barriers to accessing HIV services, and the HIV epidemic among surviving children in the Central African region has not been adequately evaluated nor addressed.

The HIV Care Cascade Among Female Sex Workers in Zimbabwe: Results of a Population-Based Survey From the Sisters Antiretroviral Therapy Programme for Prevention of HIV, an Integrated Response (SAPPH-IRe) Trial.

INTRODUCTION: Female sex workers (FSW) in sub-Saharan Africa have a higher prevalence of HIV than other women of reproductive age. Social, legal, and structural barriers influence their access to care. Little is known about the HIV diagnosis and care cascade in most countries in Southern Africa. We aimed to describe the HIV diagnosis and care cascade among FSW in Zimbabwe. METHODS: We conducted cross-sectional respondent driven sampling (RDS) surveys of FSW in 14 sites across Zimbabwe as the baseline for a cluster-randomised controlled trial investigating a combination HIV prevention and care package. We administered a questionnaire, tested women for HIV and measured viral load. We report the mean, minimum, and maximum respondent-driven sampling-2 weighted site values. RESULTS: The survey included 2722 women, approximately 200 per site. The mean HIV prevalence was 57.5% (42.8-79.2 site minimum and maximum). Of HIV-positive women, 64.0% (51.6-73.7) were aware of their status, 67.7% (53.4-84.1) of these reported taking antiretroviral therapy, and 77.8% (64.4-90.8) of these had a suppressed HIV viral load (<1000 copies/mL). Among all HIV-positive women, 49.5% had a viral load < 1000 copies/mL. CONCLUSIONS: Although most HIV-positive women aware of their status are accessing antiretroviral therapy, 36.0% of HIV-positive women are unaware of their status and 29.3% of all FSW have an unsuppressed HIV viral load. Investigation and investment into models of testing, treatment, and care are necessary to reach UNAIDS targets for HIV elimination.

Promoting Partner Testing and Couples Testing through Secondary Distribution of HIV Self-Tests: A Randomized Clinical Trial.

BACKGROUND: Achieving higher rates of partner HIV testing and couples testing among pregnant and postpartum women in sub-Saharan Africa is essential for the success of combination HIV prevention, including the prevention of mother-to-child transmission. We aimed to determine whether providing multiple HIV self-tests to pregnant and postpartum women for secondary distribution is more effective at promoting partner testing and couples testing than conventional strategies based on invitations to clinic-based testing. METHODS AND FINDINGS: We conducted a randomized trial in Kisumu, Kenya, between June 11, 2015, and January 15, 2016. Six hundred antenatal and postpartum women aged 18-39 y were randomized to an HIV self-testing (HIVST) group or a comparison group. Participants in the HIVST group were given two oral-fluid-based HIV test kits, instructed on how to use them, and encouraged to distribute a test kit to their male partner or use both kits for testing as a couple. Participants in the comparison group were given an invitation card for clinic-based HIV testing and encouraged to distribute the card to their male partner, a routine practice in many health clinics. The primary outcome was partner testing within 3 mo of enrollment. Among 570 participants analyzed, partner HIV testing was more likely in the HIVST group (90.8%, 258/284) than the comparison group (51.7%, 148/286; difference = 39.1%, 95% CI 32.4% to 45.8%, p < 0.001). Couples testing was also more likely in the HIVST group than the comparison group (75.4% versus 33.2%, difference = 42.1%, 95% CI 34.7% to 49.6%, p < 0.001). No participants reported intimate partner violence due to HIV testing. This study was limited by self-reported outcomes, a common limitation in many studies involving HIVST due to the private manner in which self-tests are meant to be used. CONCLUSIONS: Provision of multiple HIV self-tests to women seeking antenatal and postpartum care was successful in promoting partner testing and couples testing. This approach warrants further consideration as countries develop HIVST policies and seek new ways to increase awareness of HIV status among men and promote couples testing. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02386215.

Finger Prick Dried Blood Spots for HIV Viral Load Measurement in Field Conditions in Zimbabwe.

BACKGROUND: In the context of a community-randomized trial of antiretrovirals for HIV prevention and treatment among sex workers in Zimbabwe (the SAPPH-IRe trial), we will measure the proportion of women with HIV viral load (VL) above 1000 copies/mL ("VL>1000") as our primary endpoint. We sought to characterize VL assay performance by comparing results from finger prick dried blood spots (DBS) collected in the field with plasma samples, to determine whether finger prick DBS is an acceptable sample for VL quantification in the setting. METHODS: We collected whole blood from a finger prick onto filter paper and plasma samples using venipuncture from women in two communities. VL quantification was run on samples in parallel using NucliSENS EasyQ HIV-1 v2.0. Our trial outcome is the proportion of women with VL>1000, consistent with WHO guidelines relating to regimen switching. We therefore focused on this cut-off level for assessing sensitivity and specificity. Results were log transformed and the mean difference and standard deviation calculated, and correlation between VL quantification across sample types was evaluated. RESULTS: A total of 149 HIV-positive women provided DBS and plasma samples; 56 (63%) reported being on antiretroviral therapy. VL ranged from undetectable-6.08 log10 using DBS and undetectable-6.40 log10 using plasma. The mean difference in VL (plasma-DBS) was 0.077 log10 (95%CI = 0.025-0.18 log10; standard deviation = 0.63 log10,). 78 (52%) DBS and 87 (58%) plasma samples had a VL>1000. Based on plasma 'gold-standard', DBS sensitivity for detection of VL>1000 was 87.4%, and specificity was 96.8%. CONCLUSION: There was generally good agreement between DBS and plasma VL for detection of VL>1000. Overall, finger prick DBS appeared to be an acceptable sample for classifying VL as above or below 1000 copies/mL using the NucliSENS assay.

Assessment of the Potential Impact and Cost-effectiveness of Self-Testing for HIV in Low-Income Countries.

BACKGROUND: Studies have demonstrated that self-testing for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is highly acceptable among individuals and could allow cost savings, compared with provider-delivered HIV testing and counseling (PHTC), although the longer-term population-level effects are uncertain. We evaluated the cost-effectiveness of introducing self-testing in 2015 over a 20-year time frame in a country such as Zimbabwe. METHODS: The HIV synthesis model was used. Two scenarios were considered. In the reference scenario, self-testing is not available, and the rate of first-time and repeat PHTC is assumed to increase from 2015 onward, in line with past trends. In the intervention scenario, self-testing is introduced at a unit cost of $3. RESULTS: We predict that the introduction of self-testing would lead to modest savings in healthcare costs of $75 million, while averting around 7000 disability-adjusted life-years over 20 years. Findings were robust to most variations in assumptions; however, higher cost of self-testing, lower linkage to care for people whose diagnosis is a consequence of a positive self-test result, and lower threshold for antiretroviral therapy eligibility criteria could lead to situations in which self-testing is not cost-effective. CONCLUSIONS: This analysis suggests that introducing self-testing offers some health benefits and may well save costs.

Mycoplasma genitalium is associated with increased genital HIV type 1 RNA in Zimbabwean women.

BACKGROUND: Mycoplasma genitalium is a common sexually transmitted infection associated with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Some studies suggest that M. genitalium may increase the risk of HIV acquisition. However, results have been inconsistent, and this association has never been examined longitudinally. METHODS: Stored endocervical samples from a longitudinal cohort study of 131 Zimbabwean women in whom HIV-1 seroconversion recently occurred were tested for detection and quantity of M. genitalium using polymerase chain reaction analysis. The associations between M. genitalium and the detection and quantity of genital HIV type 1 (HIV-1) RNA, the detection and quantity of plasma HIV-1 RNA, and the CD4(+) T-cell count was analyzed using mixed-effects regression analysis. RESULTS: M. genitalium was detected in 10.5% of stored specimens (44 of 420), and infection persisted for up to 300 days. M. genitalium was independently associated with detection of genital HIV-1 RNA (adjusted odds ratio, 2.67; 95% confidence interval, .99-7.20), after adjustment for plasma viral load, viral set point, CD4(+) T-cell count, herpes simplex virus type 2 detection, and gonorrhea. There was no evidence of an association between M. genitalium detection or quantity and either plasma HIV-1 RNA load or CD4(+) T-cell count. CONCLUSIONS: The growing evidence for an association between M. genitalium and HIV genital shedding and the high prevalence and persistence of M. genitalium in this population suggest that further research into this association is important. Consideration of the cost-effectiveness of M. genitalium screening interventions may be warranted.

A review of self-testing for HIV: research and policy priorities in a new era of HIV prevention.

Inadequate uptake of testing for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) remains a primary bottleneck toward universal access to treatment and care, and is an obstacle to realizing the potential of new interventions for preventing HIV infection, including treatment for prevention and preexposure prophylaxis. HIV self-testing offers an approach to scaling up testing that could be high impact, low cost, confidential, and empowering for users. Although HIV self-testing was first considered >20 years ago, it has not been widely implemented. We conducted a review of policy and research on HIV self-testing, which indicates that policy is shifting toward a more flexible approach with less emphasis on pretest counseling and that HIV self-testing has been adopted in a number of settings. Empirical research on self-testing is limited, resulting in a lack of an evidence base upon which to base policy recommendations. Relevant research and investment in programs are urgently needed to enable consideration of developing formalized self-testing programs.

Stigmatising attitudes among people offered home-based HIV testing and counselling in Blantyre, Malawi: construction and analysis of a stigma scale.

BACKGROUND: HIV/AIDS related stigma is a major barrier to uptake of HIV testing and counselling (HTC). We assessed the extent of stigmatising attitudes expressed by participants offered community-based HTC, and their anticipated stigma from others to assess relationship with HIV test uptake. From these data, we constructed a brief stigma scale for use around the time of HIV testing. METHODS AND FINDINGS: Adult members of 60 households in urban Blantyre, Malawi, were selected using population-weighted random cluster sampling and offered HTC with the option to self-test before confirmatory HTC. Prior to HTC a 15-item HIV stigma questionnaire was administered. We used association testing and principal components analysis (PCA) to construct a scale measure of stigma. Of 226 adults invited to participate, 216 (95.6%) completed questionnaires and 198/216 (91.7%) opted to undergo HTC (all self-tested). Stigmatising attitudes were uncommon, but anticipated stigma was common, especially fearing verbal abuse (22%) or being abandoned by their partner (11%). Three questions showed little association or consistency with the remaining 12 stigma questions and were not included in the final scale. For the 12-question final scale, Cronbach's alpha was 0.75. Level of stigma was not associated with previously having tested for HIV (p = 0.318) or agreeing to HTC (p = 0.379), but was associated with expressed worry about being or becoming HIV infected (p = 0.003). CONCLUSIONS: Anticipated stigma prior to HTC was common among both men and women. However, the high uptake of HTC suggests that this did not translate into reluctance to accept community-based testing. We constructed a brief scale to measure stigma at the time of HIV testing that could rapidly identify individuals requiring additional support following diagnosis and monitor the impact of increasing availability of community-based HTC on prevalence of stigma.

The epidemiology of HIV among young people in sub-Saharan Africa: know your local epidemic and its implications for prevention.

BACKGROUND: Broad patterns of HIV epidemiology are frequently used to design generic HIV programs in sub-Saharan Africa. METHODS: We reviewed the epidemiology of HIV among young people in sub-Saharan Africa, and explored the unique dynamics of infection in its different regions. RESULTS: In 2009, HIV prevalence among youth in sub-Saharan Africa was an estimated 1.4% in males and 3.4% in females, but these values mask wide variation at regional and national levels. Within countries there are further major differences in HIV prevalence, such as by sex, urban/rural location, economic status, education, or ethnic group. Within this highly nuanced context, HIV prevention programs targeting youth must consider both where new infections are occurring and where they are coming from. CONCLUSIONS: Given the epidemiology, one-size-fits-all HIV prevention programs are usually inappropriate at regional and national levels. Consideration of local context and risk associated with life transitions, such as leaving school or getting married, is imperative to successful programming for young people.

HIV prevention in young people in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review.

PURPOSE: To systematically review and update evidence on the effectiveness of youth HIV/AIDS prevention interventions in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and to make evidence-based policy recommendations to guide efforts toward meeting the United Nations General Assembly Special Session HIV/AIDS goals. METHODS: Recent evidence (January 2005-December 2008) on the effectiveness of interventions to improve reported sexual behavior and biological outcomes among youth in SSA was assessed using the Steady, Ready, Go! (SRG) approach and synthesized with an earlier SRG review (January 1990-June 2005). RESULTS: A total of 23 studies were included following screening of approximately 1,200 citations. School-based, adult-led, curriculum-based interventions showed clear evidence of reducing reported risky sexual behavior. Interventions in health facilities increased the use of services when made accessible and more youth-friendly. In geographically defined communities, both interventions specifically targeting youth and community-wide interventions reduced reports of risky sexual behavior. CONCLUSIONS: HIV prevention among youth is a top priority in SSA. The most promising interventions should be scaled-up now, with careful evaluation, while exploring supplementary interventions to impact HIV incidence.

The uptake and accuracy of oral kits for HIV self-testing in high HIV prevalence setting: a cross-sectional feasibility study in Blantyre, Malawi.

BACKGROUND: Although HIV testing and counseling (HTC) uptake has increased dramatically in Africa, facility-based services are unlikely to ever meet ongoing need to the full. A major constraint in scaling up community and home-based HTC services is the unacceptability of receiving HTC from a provider known personally to prospective clients. We investigated the potential of supervised oral HIV self-testing from this perspective. METHODS AND FINDINGS: Adult members of 60 households and 72 members of community peer groups in urban Blantyre, Malawi, were selected using population-weighted random cluster sampling. Participants were offered self-testing plus confirmatory HTC (parallel testing with two rapid finger-prick blood tests), standard HTC alone, or no testing. 283 (95.6%) of 298 selected adults participated, including 136 (48.0%) men. 175 (61.8%) had previously tested (19 known HIV positive), although only 64 (21.5%) within the last year. HIV prevalence was 18.5%. Among 260 (91.9%) who opted to self-test after brief demonstration and illustrated instructions, accuracy was 99.2% (two false negatives). Although 98.5% rated the test "not hard at all to do," 10.0% made minor procedural errors, and 10.0% required extra help. Most participants indicated willingness to accept self-test kits, but not HTC, from a neighbor (acceptability 94.5% versus 46.8%, p = 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Oral supervised self-testing was highly acceptable and accurate, although minor errors and need for supervisory support were common. This novel option has potential for high uptake at local community level if it can be supervised and safely linked to counseling and care.

Association of Mycoplasma genitalium and HIV infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To systematically review studies of Mycoplasma genitalium and the association with HIV infection in adults and to summarize the findings in a meta-analysis. DESIGN: A systematic review and meta-analysis. METHODS: Epidemiological studies of the association of M. genitalium and HIV infection published prior to June 2008 were identified in a systematic review of the published literature. A random-effects meta-analysis was used to calculate the summary odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI). Further analyses stratified by geographical area and type of control population, and sensitivity analyses were conducted to assess between-study heterogeneity and publication bias. RESULTS: Nineteen eligible studies were identified. The prevalence of M. genitalium ranged from 3.1% to 47.5%. Seventeen studies found that participants with M. genitalium were more likely to be HIV infected, and this association was statistically significant in 12 studies. The summary odds ratio (OR) was 2.01 [95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.44-2.79]. The association was stronger in sub-group analyses among studies in sub-Saharan Africa (OR = 2.60, 95% CI = 2.17-3.11) and studies with healthy control populations (OR = 2.57, 95% CI = 2.05-3.22). There was strong evidence of between-study heterogeneity among all studies combined; however, between-study heterogeneity was substantially reduced in sub-group analyses. There was no statistical evidence of publication bias. CONCLUSION: The strong association between M. genitalium and HIV infections in these primarily cross-sectional observational studies highlights the need for longitudinal studies to understand the temporal association between these infections. Testing and treatment of M. genitalium-positive individuals in high-risk populations should be investigated as a potential HIV prevention strategy.