Time-dependent photobiomodulation management of neuropathic pain induced by spinal cord injury in male rats.

Neuropathic pain (NP) following spinal cord injury (SCI) often lasts for a long time and causes a range of problems that reduce the quality of life. Current treatments are not generally effective; however, photobiomodulation therapy (PBMT) has made some progress in this area. Due to the novelty of this treatment, standard therapeutic protocols have not yet been agreed upon. In the present study, we compare the analgesic effect of two PBMT protocols (2 and 4 weeks of radiation). A total of thirty-two adult male Wistar rats were divided into four groups: control, SCI, 2 W PBMT, and 4 W PBMT. SCI was induced by an aneurism clip and PBMT used a 660-nm, initiated 30 min post-SCI, and continued daily for 2 or 4 weeks. Functional recovery, hyperalgesia, and allodynia were measured weekly. At the end of the study, the Gad65, interleukin 1-alpha (IL1α), interleukin 10 (IL10), IL4, and purinergic receptor (P2xR and P2yR) expressions were measured. Data were analyzed by Prism6. The results showed PBM irradiation for 2 and 4 weeks had the same effects in improving hyperalgesia. In the case of allodynia and functional recovery, 4 W PBMT was more effective (p<0.01). 4 W PBMT increased the Gad65 expression (p <0.001) and reduced P2Y4R (p <0.05) compared to SCI animals. The effects of 2 and 4 W PBMT were the same for IL1α, IL10, and P2X3 receptors. 4 W PBMT was more effective in reducing the complications of SCI such as pain and disability. PBMT therapy is an effective method aimed at immune system function modulation to reduce NP and motor dysfunction.

Does insular cortex lesion cause tinnitus in rats?

Objectives: Tinnitus is defined as ringing of the ears that is experienced when there is no external sound source, and is an auditory phantom sensation. The insula as a multimodal cortex has been shown to be involved in the processing of auditory stimuli rather than other sensory and motor processing and reported to correlate with some aspects of tinnitus. However, its exact role is not clear. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of excitotoxic lesions limited to the insular cortex on the ability to detect a gap in background noise. Materials and Methods: Gap detection test and prepulse inhibition, two objective measurements of auditory startle response, were measured, in 33 male Wistar rats, before and up to four weeks after insular lesion in three experimental groups (sham, control, and lesion). Results: The ability to detect the gap interposed between 60 db background noise was impaired at weeks 2, 3, and 4 following insular lesion, while prepulse inhibition remained intact up to four weeks after surgery. Conclusion: These findings indicated that excitotoxic lesions of the insular cortex may produce a tinnitus-like phenomenon in rats while sparing the hearing sensitivity; suggesting that the insular cortex may have a role in the development of tinnitus.

The Effect of Calorie Restriction and Intermittent Fasting on Impaired Cognitive Function in High-Fat Diet-Induced Obesity Started Post-Weaning in Male Wistar Rat.

Background: Calorie Restriction (CR) is known as one of the most effective life-extending interventions. Therefore researchers are looking for other interventions or drugs to mimic the mentioned effects. Time-restricted feeding (TRF) has recently gained more attention recently as one of the CR mimetics. Here we evaluate and compare the effects of CR or TRF on cognitive function in young animals fed a high-fat diet (HFD). Methods: This is an experimental study that three-week-old male Wistar rats (n:52) were subjected to a control diet (n:11) or HFD (n:42). Then the HFD group was divided into 1) 30% calorie restriction (CR), 2) Night Intermittent Fasting (NIF), 3) Day Intermittent Fasting (DIF), and 4) Ad-Libitum (AL) with the standard diet for ten weeks (each of 9). An independent T-test or Mann-Whitney test was used for the first phase and in the second phase of the study, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by Tukey post-hoc tests, or Kruskal-Wallis and post-hoc Bonferroni test were used. P-values of <0.05 were considered significant. Results: Deteriorated mental function was significantly lower in HFD than CON (p= 0.041). CR was still more efficient than NIF in cognitive function in obese subjects. Post-hoc test indicated that from day 2-4, escape latency was significantly shorter in NIF and CR, which was not seen in other groups (p=0.045). Conclusion: While TRF has garnered much attention recently, here we show that CR is still more efficient in learning and memory tasks. Longer fasting times and different fasting periods are recommended to study.

Human umbilical cord blood-derived platelet -rich plasma: a new window for motor function recovery and axonal regeneration after spinal cord injury.

BACKGROUND: There are complex mechanisms for reducing intrinsic repairability and neuronal regeneration following spinal cord injury (SCI). Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) is a rich source of growth factors and has been used to motivate the regeneration of peripheral nerves in neurodegenerative disorders. However, only a few studies have shown the effects of PRP on the SCI models. METHODS: We investigated whether PRP derived from human umbilical cord blood (HUCB-PRP) could recover motor function in animals with spinal cord injury. Sixty adult male Wistar rats were randomly divided into 6 groups (n=60) as control, sham (laminectomy without induction of spinal cord injury), SCI, vehicle (SCI+ Platelet-Poor Plasma), PRP2day (SCI+PRP injection 2 days after SCI), and PRP14day (SCI+PRP injection 14 days after SCI). SCI was performed at the T12-T13 level. BBB test was carried out weekly after injury for six weeks. Caspase3 expression was determined using the Immunohistochemistry technique. The expression of GSK3ß, CSF-tau, and MAG was determined using the Western blot technique. Data were analyzed by PRISM & SPSS software. RESULTS: HUCB-PRP treated animals showed a higher locomotor function recovery than those in the SCI group (p<0.0001). The level of caspase3, GSK3ß and CSF- Tau reduced and the MAG level in the spinal cord increased by the injection of HUCB-PRP in SCI animals. CONCLUSION: Injection of HUCB-PRP enhanced hind limb locomotor performance by modulation of caspase3, GSK3ß, CSF-tau, and MAG expression. Using HUCB-PRP could be a new therapeutic option for recovering motor function and axonal regeneration after SCI.

Injection of Cerium Oxide Nanoparticles to Treat Spinal Cord Injury in Rats.

This study investigated the effects of local injection of cerium oxide nanoparticles (CeONPs) in a rat spinal cord injury (SCI) model. Thirty-six adult male Wistar rats were divided into 4 groups: controls (healthy animals), sham (laminectomy), SCI (laminectomy+SCI induction), and treatment (laminectomy+SCI induction+intrathecal injection of CeONPs immediately after injury). SCI was induced using an aneurysm clip at the T12-T13 vertebral region. Motor performance and pain threshold tests were performed weekly; H&E staining and measurement of cavity sizes were performed 6 weeks after injury. The expression of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (GCSF), P44/42 MAPK, P-P44/42 MAPK, Tau, myelin-associated glycoprotein(MAG) was evaluated after 6 weeks by Western blot. The Basso, Beattie, and Bresnahan locomotor scoring scales improved in animals receiving CeONPs compared with SCI animals. The cavity sizes were less in the treatment group. GCSF expression was similar in the animals receiving CeONPs compared with the SCI group but the expression of ERK1/ERK2 and phospho-ERK was lower than in the SCI group. Expression levels of Tau and MAG were significantly increased in treated animals compared to the SCI group. These data indicate that the use of CeONPs may improve motor functional recovery in SCI.

Sertoli cell transplantation attenuates microglial activation and inhibits TRPC6 expression in neuropathic pain induced by spinal cord injury.

BACKGROUND: Cell therapy is a promising treatment method for relieving neuropathic pain caused by spinal cord injuries (SCI). Sertoli cells (SCs) are an attractive choice given their demonstrated secretion of growth factors and immunosuppressant effect. This study mechanistically characterizes the analgesic effect of SCs transplantation. METHODS: The clip compression SCI model was carried out on the T12-T13 level in male Wistar rats. One-week post-SCI, SCs were transplanted into the site of injury. Animals underwent Basso, Beattie, and Bresnahan locomotor scoring, mechanical allodynia, and thermal hyperalgesia on a weekly basis for a duration of six weeks. Histological examination of the spinal cord and molecular evaluation of Iba-1, P2Y4, TRPC6, and P-mTOR were performed. SCs survival, measured by anti-Müllerian hormone expression in the spinal cord. RESULTS: Animals that received SCs transplantation showed improvement in motor function recovery and pain relief. Furthermore, a cavity was significantly decreased in the transplanted animals (p = 0.0024), the expression level of TRPC6 and caspase3 and the number of activated microglia decreased compared to the SCI animals, and p-mTOR and P2Y4R expression remarkably increased compared to the SCI group. CONCLUSION: SCs transplantation produces an analgesic effect which may represent a promising treatment for SCI-induced chronic pain.

Pain Alleviating Effect of Adipose-Derived Stem Cells Transplantation on the Injured Spinal Cord: A Behavioral and Electrophysiological Evaluation.

Few studies are conducted on the efficacy of human adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) in spinal cord injury (SCI) management and electrophysiological changes in the spinal cord. Therefore, the present study aimed to determine the effect of ADSCs on neuropathic pain, motor function recovery, and electrophysiology assessment. For the purpose of this study, adult male Wistar rats (weight: 140-160 gr, n = 42) were randomly allocated into five groups namely intact animals, sham-operated, SCI non-treated animals, vehicle-treated (culture media), and ADSCs treated groups. One week after clips compression SCI induction, about 1×106 cells were transplanted into the spinal cord. As well, both neuropathic pain (allodynia and hyperalgesia) and motor function were measured weekly. Cavity size, ADSCs survival, and electrophysiology assessments were measured at the end of the eighth week. The transplantation of ADSCs resulted in a significant improvement in the locomotion of SCI animals (p<0.0001), mechanical allodynia (p<0.0001), cold allodynia (p<0.0001), mechanical hyperalgesia (p<0.0001), and thermal hyperalgesia (p<0.0001). The cavity size was significantly smaller among the ADSCs-treated animals (p <0.0001). The single-unit recording showed that the transplantation of ADSCs decreased wide dynamic range (WDR) in neurons and it evoked potential in response to receiving signals from Aß (p<0.0001) and Aδ (p=0.003) C-fiber (p<0.0001) neurons. Post-discharge recorded from WDR neurons decreased after the transplantation of ADSCs (p<0.0001) and wind up in the ADSCs-treated group was lower than that of the SCI group (p=0.003). Our results showed that the transplantation of ADSCs could significantly alleviate neuropathic pain, enhance motor function recovery, and improve electrophysiology findings after SCI.

Analgesic Effect of Bumetanide on Neuropathic Pain in Patients With Spinal Cord Injury.

INTRODUCTION: The current study evaluated the analgesic effects of bumetanide as an adjunctive in the management of neuropathic pain following Spinal Cord Injury (SCI). The peripheral expression of Na-K-Cl Cotransporter-1 (NKCC1) and K-Cl Cotransporter-2 (KCC2) genes in polymorphonuclear lymphocytes (PMLs) was assessed as a possible biomarker indicating central mechanisms underlying the observed response. METHODS: Through an open-label, single-arm, pilot trial of bumetanide (2 mg/d), an add-on treatment was conducted on 14 SCI patients for 19 weeks. This study consisted of 3 phases: pre-treatment (1 month), titration (3 weeks), and active treatment (4 months). Ultimately, 9 patients completed the study. The primary outcome variables were the endpoint pain score using the Numeric Rating Scale (NRS), and also the short-form of the McGill pain questionnaire. Secondary endpoints included the short-form of the health survey that assesses the quality of life. Blood samples were collected and used for determining the expression of NKCC1 and KCC2 genes in transcription and translation levels. RESULTS: Bumetanide treatment significantly decreased average pain intensity according to the NRS and the short-form of the McGill pain questionnaire scores. Baseline expression of KCC2 protein was low between groups and increased significantly following treatment (P<0.05). In the current study, pain improvement was accompanied by the greater mean change from the baseline (improvement) for the overall quality of life. CONCLUSION: These data highlighted the analgesic effect of bumetanide on neuropathic pain and indicated the potential role of the upregulation of KCC2 protein and involvement of GABAergic disinhibition in producing neuropathic pain.

Minocycline Mitigation of Tremor Syndrome and Defect of Cognitive and Balance Induced by Harmaline.

INTRODUCTION: Minocycline has anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, and anti-oxidant effects. Preclinical data suggest that minocycline could be beneficial for treating common neurological disorders, including Parkinson disease and multiple sclerosis. METHODS: In this study, the effects of minocycline on harmaline-induced motor and cognitive impairments were studied in male Wistar rats. The rats were divided into four groups of ten animals each. Harmaline was used for the induction of Essential Tremor (ET). Minocycline (90 mg/kg, IP) was administered 30 minutes before the saline or harmaline. Tremor intensity, spontaneous locomotor activity, passive avoidance memory, anxiety-related behaviors, and motor function were assessed in the rats. RESULTS: The results showed that minocycline could recover tremor intensity and step width but failed to recuperate the motor balance. The memory impairments observed in harmaline-treated rats were somewhat reversed by administration of minocycline. The cerebellum and inferior olive nucleus were studied for neuronal degeneration using histochemistry and transmission electron microscopy techniques. Harmaline caused ultrastructural changes and neuronal cell loss in inferior olive and cerebellar Purkinje cells. Minocycline exhibited neuroprotective changes on cerebellar Purkinje cells and inferior olivary neurons. CONCLUSION: These results open new therapeutic perspectives for motor and memory impairments in ET. However, further studies are needed to clarify the exact mechanisms.

Chronic nanocurcumin treatment ameliorates pain-related behavior, improves spatial memory, and reduces hippocampal levels of IL-1ß and TNFα in the chronic constriction injury model of neuropathic pain.

BACKGROUND: Memory deficit is a common cognitive comorbid in patients with neuropathic pain that need better treatment. Recent research revealed that nanocurcumin has an antinociceptive action and a protective effect against memory disorders, suggesting its possible effectiveness for the treatment of neuropathic pain and its comorbidity. METHODS: Adult male albino Wistar rats (n = 32) were randomly divided into four experimental groups: CCI+ nanocurcumin, CCI + vehicle, sham + nanocurcumin, and sham + vehicle. Neuropathic pain induced by a chronic constriction injury of the sciatic nerve. Nanocurcumin or vehicle was injected intraperitoneally for 10 days. Behavioral assessment achieved to evaluate pain threshold in the von Frey test and radiant heat test, also spatial learning and memory examined by the Morris water maze (MWM) test. To explore the possible relation, IL-1ß, and TNF-α levels of the hippocampus measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). RESULTS: Our data showed that CCI caused neuropathic pain-related behaviors and spatial learning and memory disorders in rats. Chronic treatment with nanocurcumin significantly increased pain threshold (P < 0.001; F = 27.63, F = 20.58), improved spatial memory (P < 0.01; F = 47.37), and decreased the hippocampal levels of IL-1ß (P < 0.001; F = 33.57) and TNF-α (P < 0.01; F = 7.25) in CCI rats. CONCLUSION: Chronic nanocurcumin can ameliorate pain-related behavior, improve spatial learning and memory deficits, and is associated with the reduction of IL-1ß and TNF-α levels in the hippocampus in CCI rats. Nanocurcumin may be potentially providing a therapeutic alternative for the treatment of neuropathic pain and its memory impairment comorbidity.

Protective and anti-inflammatory effect of selenium nano-particles against bleomycin-induced pulmonary injury in male rats.

Pulmonary fibrosis (PF) is an interstitial lung disease, in which the exact pathologic mechanisms are not fully understood. Drug trials for the treatment of PF have shown disappointing results and controversial. Recently, selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) have received great attention for potential use in treatments, due to high bioactivity features and lower toxicity. This study evaluated the protective effect of SeNPs against pulmonary injury induced by bleomycin (single dose, 4 mg/kg, intratracheal) in male rats in early and late phases of the disease. The rats were treated with SeNPs by intraperitoneal injection (0.5 mg SeNP/kg) for five consecutive days in the early phase (a day after injection of bleomycin) and late phase (a week after injection of bleomycin). The results showed that injection of SeNPs in the early phase improved the degree of alveolitis and inflammation and lung structure damage. Also, led to significant decreases in density of transforming growth factor- ß1 (TGF-ß1) in the lung and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) levels in the serum and lung homogenates compared with bleomycin-administrated group. Notably, treatment with the SeNP during the late phase did not show any ameliorative effects. Thus, the data suggest that SeNP has a protective effect against bleomycin-induced pulmonary injury in rats in the early phase of the disease. This might mean that SeNPs may be a new therapeutic agent for the improvement of this disease in the early phases.

The CA1 hippocampal serotonin alterations involved in anxiety-like behavior induced by sciatic nerve injury in rats.

OBJECTIVES: Several clinical and experimental studies reported the anxiety as one of the neuropathic pain comorbidities; however, the mechanisms involved in this comorbidity are incompletely cleared. The current study investigated the consequence of pain induced by peripheral neuropathy on the serotonin (5-HT) level of the CA1 region of the hippocampus, which is known as a potential reason, for anxiety associated with neuropathic pain. METHODS: In this manner, 72 male rats were inconstantly subdivided into three experimental groups as follows: control, sham, and chronic constriction injury (CCI). Neuropathic pain was initiated by the CCI of the sciatic nerve, and then, mechanical allodynia, thermal hyperalgesia, and anxiety-like behavior were evaluated using the von Frey filaments, radiant heat, open field test (OFT), and elevated plus maze (EPM) respectively. To investigate the probable mechanisms, the in vivo extracellular levels of 5-HT were assessed by microdialysis and using reverse-phase high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) in the CA1 region of hippocampus on days 16 and 30 post-CCI. RESULTS: Our data suggested that CCI caused anxiety-like behavior in OFT and EPM test. 5-HT concentration in the CA1 region of the hippocampus significantly (F=43.8, p=0.000) reduced in CCI rats, when the pain threshold was minimum. Nevertheless, these alterations reversed while the pain threshold innate increased. CONCLUSIONS: Neuropathic pain, initiated by constriction of the sciatic nerve can induce anxiety-like behavior in rats. This effect accompanies the reduction in 5-HT concentration in the CA1 region of the hippocampus. When the pain spontaneously alleviated, 5-HT level increased and anxiety-like behavior relieved.

The Effects of Calorie Restriction and Time-Restricted Feeding on IGF1 Serum Level and Lipid Profile in Male Wister Rats with Previous Obesity.

BACKGROUND: Calorie restriction (CR) is known as a nutritional gold standard for life extension and different studies have shown that insulin-like growth factor (IGF1) reduction through CR may be involved in CR's anti-aging effects. Besides, time-restricted-feeding (TRF) is also highlighted due to more feasibility and positive health effects. We designed this study to compare the effects of CR and TRF on IGF1 and other metabolic parameters. METHODS: Fifty-two male Wistar rats (3 weeks old) were subjected to either a control (CON, n = 11) diet or high-fat diet (HFD, n = 42) for 17 weeks. In the second phase of the study, the HFD group were divided into four groups (n = 9) 1) 30% CR, 2) Night Intermittent Fasting (NIF, active phase), 3) day intermittent fasting (DIF, rest phase), and 4) Ad-Libitum (AL) with a standard diet for 10 weeks. Blood samples were collected at the end of both phases. RESULTS: HFD increased IGF1 and deteriorated lipid profiles, except for triglycerides (P: 0.018, 0.008.0.012, 0.032) but CR in these obese subjects could not lower the IGF1 level. HDL significantly decreased in DIF compared to CON and CR (P; 0.001). Meanwhile, HOMA-IR increased in DIF and was significant compared to CR (P: 0.002). Serum glucose levels decreased in CR compared to all groups except for CON (P: 0.001). CONCLUSION: Data indicates the role of previous obesity on the effect of CR on the IGF1 level and highlights the effect of inappropriate time of food intake on HDL and APOA1.

Platelet-rich plasma in umbilical cord blood reduces neuropathic pain in spinal cord injury by altering the expression of ATP receptors.

BACKGROUND: Neuropathic pain following injury or dysfunction of the peripheral or CNS is one of the most important medical challenges to treat. Humane platelet-rich plasma (HPRP), which is a rich source of growth factors, may be able to treat and reduce pain caused by spinal cord injury (SCI). In this study, the effect of HPRP on neuropathic pain caused by SCI was investigated. METHODS: Sixty adult male Wistar rats were randomly divided into 6 groups: control, sham, SCI, vehicle (SCI+platelet-poor plasma), SCI+ PRP2day (injection 48 hrs after SCI) and SCI+PRP14day (injection 14 days after SCI). SCI was induced at the T12-T13 level. Behavioral tests were conducted weekly after injury for six weeks. Allodynia and hyperalgesia were assessed using acetone drops, plantar test and von Frey filament. Cavity size and the number of fibroblasts were determined by H&E stain, and the expression of mTOR, p-mTOR, P2×3R and P2Y4R were determined using the western blot technique. Data were analyzed using PRISM & SPSS software. RESULTS: PRP injection showed a higher pain threshold in mechanical allodynia (p<0.0001), cold allodynia (p<0.0001) and thermal hyperalgesia (p<0.0001) than those in the spinal. Animals treated with PRP also reduced cavity size, fibroblast number, p-mTOR/mTOR ratio, and P2×3R expression, and increased P2Y4R expression. The difference between the two groups was not statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: The results showed that PRP reduced SCI-induced allodynia and hyperalgesia by regulating ATP signaling. Using HPRP can open a new window in the treatment of pain caused by damage to the nervous system.

Preliminary study of analgesic effect of bumetanide on neuropathic pain in patients with spinal cord injury.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE: The current study evaluated the analgesic effects of bumetanide as an adjunctive treatment in managing neuropathic pain following spinal cord injury. The peripheral expression level of Na-K-Cl-cotransporter-1 (NKCC1) and K-Cl-cotransporter-2 (KCC2) genes in polymorphonuclear lymphocytes (PMLs) assessed as a possible biomarker indicating central underlying mechanisms. METHODS: This open-label, single-arm, pilot trial of bumetanide (2 mg/day) is an add-on treatment conducted in 14 SCI patients for 19 weeks. The whole duration consisted of three phases: pre-treatment (1 month), titration (3 weeks), and active treatment (4 months). Ultimately, nine patients completed the study. The primary outcome variables were the endpoint pain score measured by the numeric rating scale (NRS), and the short-form McGill Pain Questionnaire. Secondary endpoints included the Short-Form Health Survey that measures the quality of life. Blood samples were collected and used for determining the expression of NKCC1 and KCC2 genes in transcription and translation levels. RESULTS: Bumetanide treatment significantly reduced average pain intensity according to the NRS and the short form of the McGill Pain Questionnaire scores. The baseline expression of KCC2 protein was low between groups and increased significantly following treatment (P < 0.05). Through the current study, pain improvement accompanied by the more significant mean change from the baseline for the overall quality of life. CONCLUSION: These data might be a piece of preliminary evidence for the analgesic effect of bumetanide on neuropathic pain and could support the potential role of the upregulation of KCC2 protein and involvement of GABAergic disinhibition in producing neuropathic pain.

The effect of chondroitinase ABC and photobiomodulation therapy on neuropathic pain after spinal cord injury in adult male rats.

INTRODUCTION: . The goal of the study was to test the effects of photobiomodulation therapy (PBMT) and intra-spinal injection of chondroitinase ABC (chABC) both alone and combined on pain induced by spinal cord injury (SCI) in rats. MATERIAL AND METHODS: SCI was induced by compression using an aneurysm clip. PBMT used a 660 nm laser starting at 30 minutes after SCI and then daily for 2 week, and at the end of 1-week ChABC was injected into the spinal cord. Allodynia (mechanical and cold), hyperalgesia (mechanical and thermal) and functional recovery were measured. Molecular levels of IL6, BDNF, GDNF and Gad65 were evaluated. RESULTS: . Both ChABC, PBMT and the combination reduced allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia and improved functional recovery, but did not reduce mechanical hyperalgesia. Pain-related factors (BDNF and IL6) were decreased and anti-nociceptive factors (Gad65 and GDNF) were increased. CONCLUSION: . Treatment of SCI by PBM is a non-invasive technique, and could be improved by ChABC injection to reduce neuropathic pain and improve movement.

Photobiomodulation for spinal cord injury: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

In recent years, photobiomodulation therapy (PBMT) has found many applications in various medical fields. Studies of PBMT on spinal cord injury (SCI) have mostly used laser sources in experimental animal models. The purpose of this study was to summarize studies that have employed PBMT for various kinds of SCI in animals. A thorough search in databases including MEDLINE, EMBASE, SCOPUS, and Web of Science, with the removal of unrelated articles, yielded 16 relevant articles. The meta-analysis showed that PBMT was effective in improving post-SCI movement in the first 14 days (MD = 1.593 (95% CI: 1.110 to 2.075; p <0.001, I2 = 51.9%) and this improvement became even greater thereafter (MD = 2.086 (95% CI: 1.570 to 2.603; p = <0.001. I2= 90.3%). Time of irradiation (<300 sec or >300 sec), gender (male or female), injury model (contusion or compression, radiation protocol (<14 days or ≥14days), laser wavelength (<800nm or >800nm) and injury severity (moderate or severe) were found to be factors that can affect PBM efficacy for SCI treatment. PBMT has an anti-inflammatory effect, is effective in reducing the size of spinal cord lesions and helps to absorb administrated proteins and stem cells to the lesion site.

Simultaneous intrathecal injection of muscimol and endomorphin-1 alleviates neuropathic pain in rat model of spinal cord injury.

INTRODUCTION: Due to side effects of medications used for chronic pain, combination therapy seems to be an appropriate solution for alleviation of chronic pain and reducing the side effects. The role of inhibitory GABA system is well proven in reducing neuropathic pain. Also, special attention has been focused on endogenous morphine (endomorphins) in reducing chronic pain originates from damage to the nervous system. The purpose of this study is to investigate the analgesic effect of simultaneous administration of GABA agonist and endomorphin-1 on neuropathic pain in rat model of spinal cord injury (SCI). The role of oxidative stress, NR1 subunits of NMDA receptors, and α2 subunits of GABA receptors in the spinal cord has also been investigated. METHODS: Spinal cord at level of T6-T8 was compressed. Three weeks after spinal cord injury, muscimol and endomorphin-1 were injected (intrathecally once a day for 7 days) individually or in combination. Mechanical and cold allodynia, thermal and mechanical hyperalgesia were evaluated before injection and 15 and 60 min after injection. At the end of behavioral experiments, histological and biochemical evaluations were done on prepared spinal cord samples. RESULTS: Isobologram results showed that combination therapy significantly increased the pain threshold comparing to injection of endomorphin-1 (EM) or muscimol alone. Histological studies indicated the increased expression of α2 subunits of GABA receptors, and NR1 subunits of NMDA receptors in the spinal cord. The combination therapy also increased the glutathione (GSH) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) level and decreased the malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in the spinal cord. CONCLUSION: Simultaneous administration of muscimol and endomorphine-1 could be a new candidate for alleviation of pain resulting from spinal cord injury.

The role of CGRP receptor antagonist (CGRP8-37) and Endomorphin-1 combination therapy on neuropathic pain alleviation and expression of Sigma-1 receptors and antioxidants in rats.

BACKGROUND: Spinal cord injury is one of the most common causes of neuropathic pain which is not responsive to common treatments. Owing to the adverse effects of drugs, it seems that the use of Calcitonin Gene-Related Protein (CGRP) receptor antagonist or Morphine and their combination could be an appropriate strategy for pain alleviation. METHOD: To achieve the objective, fifty six male Wistar rats were divided into seven groups. CGRP8-37 and Endomorphin-1 alone, and in combinated administration, as bolus and continues dose. Both mechanical and cold allodynia, and mechanical hyperalgesia were evaluated before and also15 and 60 min after injection to indicate the efficacy of the therapies in the acute and chronic circumstances on pain induced by spinal cord compression injury. Sigma-1 receptor experssion, oxidant and antioxidant activity after the seven days of the drug adminestration were evaluated. RESULT: The results showed that Endomorphin-1and CGRP8-37 injections were able to reduce neuropathic pain after spinal cord compression injury. Compared to Endomorphin-1, or CGRP8-37 monotherapy, combination therapy did not show more attenuating effects on the pain threshold. Compared to the continous administration of Endomorphin-1 alone, and CGRP8-37 alone, the continous combination therapy did not reduce the pain further. Molecular studies disclosed the increased expression of the Sigma1 receptor, in the spinal cord after administration of Endomorphin-1, and CGRP8-37 alone, as well as combination therapy. Although, an increase in GPx and SOD activity, and decrease in MDA activity was observed in the combination therapy. CONCLUSION: Our results demonstrate that either Endomorphin-1 or CGRP receptor antagonist is able to decrease the neuropathic pain after SCI but combination therapy by a CGRP receptor antagonist and Endomorphin-1 did not make any further reduction in pain sensation.

High-intensity interval training increases myocardial levels of Klotho and protects the heart against ischaemia-reperfusion injury.

NEW FINDINGS: What is the central question of this study? Can short-term high-intensity interval training (HIIT) contribute to the reduction of ischaemia-reperfusion (IR) injury by enhancing the levels of Klotho and its related axes, including myocardial TRPC6 expression, and antioxidant defence as novel possible mechanisms of exercise-induced cadioprotection (EICP) against IR injury? What is the main finding and its importance? The increase of plasma and myocardial levels of Klotho as a result of preconditioning with HIIT and prevention of a significant reduction of Klotho during IR injury can promote cardioprotection and reduce damage by attenuating myocardial TRPC6 expression and increasing antioxidant defence. The present findings may provide a new mechanism in EICP and IR injury, and provide the knowledge to develop preventive and therapeutic approaches. ABSTRACT: Cardiovascular disease, especially coronary artery disease, remains a major cause of morbidity and mortality in the world, and ischaemia-reperfusion (IR) insult is the main pathological cause leading to death. Exercise training is associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease and the development of cardioprotection against IR injury. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of preconditioning with high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on myocardial and plasma levels of Klotho and its related axes as novel mechanisms of exercise-induced cardioprotection against IR injury. Seventy male Wistar rats were randomly divided into five groups of control, HIIT, sham, IR and HIIT group that underwent IR injury (H-IR). The training group performed five sessions of HIIT on the treadmill. The cardiac IR injury was induced by ligation of the left anterior descending coronary artery for 30 min followed by 24 h reperfusion. Infarct size and histopathological assessment of cardiac tissues were determined through Evans Blue-triphenyltetrazolium chloride and haematoxylin-eosin staining, respectively. We investigated lipid peroxidation and markers of cardiac injury, antioxidant enzymes and the plasma levels of Klotho using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Also, myocardial levels of Klotho and TRPC6 expression were determined by western blot assays. The results demonstrated a significant increase in myocardial and plasma levels of Klotho following HIIT and a significant decrease during IR injury. Myocardial TRPC6 channel expression increased following IR. HIIT also prevented a significant reduction of Klotho during IR and consequently reduced the expression of the TRPC6 channel in the H-IR group compared with the IR group. Furthermore, HIIT decreased the infarct size, cardiac injury, lipid peroxidation, lactate dehydrogenase, creatine kinase myocardial band and cardiac troponin-I, and improved total antioxidant capacity and catalase, superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase activities following IR injury. The findings of the present study suggest that HIIT improves cardioprotection against IR injury and reduces cardiac damages through an increase in myocardial and plasma levels of Klotho and its related axes (TRPC6 and antioxidant defence). These findings can help to develop preventive and therapeutic approaches.