The promise and pitfalls of community-based monitoring with a focus on Canadian examples.

Community-based monitoring (CBM) is a widely used form of scientific data collection in which local community members directly participate in ecosystem research and also help the process by sharing traditional ecological knowledge and local understanding of land and resources. This paper presents a review of the challenges and opportunities associated with CBM projects in Canada and internationally. While Canadian cases are the primary focus, international examples are drawn on to provide additional context. Based on our review of 121 documents and publications, we found that CBM helps fill science research gaps by providing access to continuous data sets on the ecosystems being studied. CBM also increases the credibility of the data among users, as the community itself takes part in the environmental monitoring process. CBM supports cross-cultural learning and the co-production of knowledge by using traditional ecological knowledge with science, thereby enabling researchers, scientists and community members to learn from one another. Our review suggests that although there are multiple successes, CBM faces several challenges that constrain its progress including funding shortages, lack of support for local stewardship, and inadequate training for local users in the operation of equipment and data collection methods. Data sharing and rights on the use of data are also constraining to the long-term success of CBM programs.

Recreational tobacco consumption and food insecurity among First Nations in Canada.

OBJECTIVE: Crowding-out effects of tobacco consumption refers to the situation in which tobacco consumption reduces a household's spending on other commodities. In this paper, we test for the crowding-out effects of recreational tobacco consumption on food expenditures among on-reserve Indigenous communities in Canada. METHODS: We use data from household expenditure surveys (N=469) to investigate tobacco consumption behaviour of on-reserve households of six First Nation communities in Canada. Using conditional Engel curves, we estimate the crowding-out effects of spending on tobacco on budget share of other expenditure categories with a focus on food expenditures. RESULTS: Our analysis showed that crowding-out effects of consuming tobacco on consumption of goods and services are minimal with an estimated impact of -0.00004 on the budget share of food expenditures in the remaining budget excess of expenditures on tobacco. While crowding-out effects are not statistically significant in general, the budget share of store-bought food expenditures is significantly lower (i.e. 5%) among tobacco consumer households. CONCLUSION: This study sheds new light on some of the indirect impacts of recreational tobacco use and Indigenous food insecurity in Canada. This study is the first attempt to test for crowding-out effects of tobacco consumption among Indigenous populations in Canada. Our findings are important and highlight areas for substantial improvements in health and well-being outcomes given the alarming rates of food insecurity experienced by Indigenous communities in Canada.

RéSUMé: OBJECTIF: L'effet d'éviction de la consommation de tabac désigne la situation dans laquelle cette consommation réduit les dépenses d'un ménage pour d'autres produits. Dans cet article, nous analysons l'effet d'éviction exercé par l'usage récréatif du tabac sur les dépenses alimentaires dans les communautés autochtones du Canada vivant dans les réserves. MéTHODE: Nous utilisons les données d'enquêtes sur les dépenses des ménages (N = 469) pour étudier le comportement de consommation de tabac des ménages de six communautés des Premières nations du Canada vivant dans des réserves. À l'aide de courbes d'Engel conditionnelles, nous estimons l'effet d'éviction des dépenses pour le tabac sur la part du budget des autres catégories de dépenses, en particulier les dépenses alimentaires. RéSULTATS: Selon notre analyse, l'effet d'éviction de la consommation de tabac sur la consommation de produits et services est minime, avec un impact estimatif de -0,00004 sur la part du budget des dépenses alimentaires dans l'excédent budgétaire restant des dépenses pour le tabac. Bien que l'effet d'éviction ne soit pas significatif dans l'ensemble, la part du budget des dépenses consacrée aux aliments achetés au magasin est sensiblement (5 %) moins élevée dans les ménages qui consomment du tabac. CONCLUSION: Cette étude apporte un nouvel éclairage sur certaines incidences indirectes de l'usage récréatif du tabac et sur l'insécurité alimentaire dans les populations autochtones du Canada. Elle représente une première tentative d'analyser l'effet d'éviction de la consommation de tabac dans les populations autochtones du Canada. Nos constatations sont importantes et font ressortir des aspects nécessitant des améliorations substantielles dans les résultats de santé et de bien-être, vu les taux alarmants d'insécurité alimentaire dans les communautés autochtones du Canada.

Indigenous guardians as an emerging approach to indigenous environmental governance.

Over the past 3 decades, indigenous guardian programs (also known as indigenous rangers or watchmen) have emerged as an institution for indigenous governments to engage in collaborative environmental governance. Using a systematic review of peer-reviewed literature for research conducted in Australia, Canada, Aotearoa-New Zealand, and the United States, we sought to characterize the emergence of indigenous guardians in the literature and explore whether guardian approaches are representative of Indigenous approaches to environmental governance. Using a multistep relevance-screening method, we reviewed 83 articles published since 1995, that report on, critique, or comment on Indigenous guardians. Our findings indicated that most articles on the topic were published in the last decade (88%), focused on Australia (65%), and were in a social science discipline (53%). The lead author of the majority of articles was an academic, although only half of the articles included an indigenous scholar or member of an indigenous group or organization as a coauthor. Finally, 11 articles were on research of guardian programs that were locally led and only 5 exemplified indigenous governance, based on 2 well-known community-based monitoring typologies. Our findings indicate that more research is required to understand the implications of current guardian programs for indigenous self-determination, particularly when such programs are embedded in a broader western environmental governance structure.

Guardianes Indígenas como una Estrategia Emergente para la Administración Ambiental Indígena Resumen Durante las tres décadas más recientes, los programas de guardianes indígenas (también conocidos como guardias o vigilantes indígenas) han emergido como una institución para que las administraciones indígenas participen en la administración ambiental colaborativa. Mediante una revisión sistemática de la literatura revisada por pares de proyectos de investigación realizados en Australia, Canadá, Aotearoa-Nueva Zelanda y en los Estados Unidos buscamos caracterizar el surgimiento de los guardianes indígenas en la literatura y exploramos si las estrategias de guardianes son representativas de las estrategias indígenas para la administración ambiental. Usamos un método de filtración de relevancia con pasos múltiples para revisar 83 artículos publicados desde 1995; estos artículos reportan, critican o comentan sobre los guardianes indígenas. Nuestros hallazgos indicaron que la mayoría de los artículos dedicados a este tema fue publicada en la última década (88%), está enfocada en Australia (65%) y está dedicada a una disciplina de las ciencias sociales (53%). El autor principal de la mayoría de los artículos fue un académico, aunque sólo la mitad de los artículos incluía a un investigador indígena o a un miembro de un grupo u organización indígena como coautor. Finalmente, once artículos investigaron los programas de guardianes liderados localmente y solamente cinco artículos ejemplifican la administración indígena con base en dos tipologías populares de monitoreo basadas en la comunidad. Nuestros hallazgos indican que se requiere una mayor investigación para entender las implicaciones de los programas de guardianes para la autodeterminación indígena, particularmente cuando dichos programas están arraigados en una estructura de administración ambiental occidental más generalizada.

Undermining subsistence: Barren-ground caribou in a "tragedy of open access".

Sustaining arctic/subarctic ecosystems and the livelihoods of northern Indigenous peoples is an immense challenge amid increasing resource development. The paper describes a "tragedy of open access" occurring in Canada's north as governments open up new areas of sensitive barren-ground caribou habitat to mineral resource development. Once numbering in the millions, barren-ground caribou populations (Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus/Rangifer tarandus granti) have declined over 70% in northern Canada over the last two decades in a cycle well understood by northern Indigenous peoples and scientists. However, as some herds reach critically low population levels, the impacts of human disturbance have become a major focus of debate in the north and elsewhere. A growing body of science and traditional knowledge research points to the adverse impacts of resource development; however, management efforts have been almost exclusively focused on controlling the subsistence harvest of northern Indigenous peoples. These efforts to control Indigenous harvesting parallel management practices during previous periods of caribou population decline (for example, 1950s) during which time governments also lacked evidence and appeared motivated by other values and interests in northern lands and resources. As mineral resource development advances in northern Canada and elsewhere, addressing this "science-policy gap" problem is critical to the sustainability of both caribou and people.

An inventory of collaborative arrangements between Aboriginal peoples and the Canadian forest sector: linking policies to diversification in forms of engagement.

This paper examines collaborative arrangements between Aboriginal peoples and the forest sector across Canada. Using a broad definition of collaboration, we identified 1378 arrangements in 474 Aboriginal communities in all Canadian provinces and territories, except Nunavut. We categorize these collaborative arrangements into five broad types: treaties and other formal agreements; planning and management activities; influence on decision-making; forest tenures; and economic roles and partnerships. Consistent data was available for only the first three types, which showed that close to 60% of Aboriginal communities use each approach. However, this masks significant differences between provinces. For example, economic roles and partnerships are in place in all New Brunswick communities and 74% of communities in British Columbia, but only 12% of Manitoban communities. The proportion of communities that have been involved in participatory processes in forest decision-making (such as advisory committees and consultation processes) is particularly high in Quebec with 88% of communities, but only 32% of communities hold forest tenures. We also find that three-quarters of all communities choose to engage in two or more approaches, despite the demands that this can place upon the time and energy of community members. We finally consider how policy environments in different jurisdictions affect the frequency of certain types of collaboration. This empirical study, and the typology that it demonstrates, can inform policy development for Aboriginal involvement in Canadian forestry and help guide future research into broader issues of collaborative governance of natural resources.

Collaboration between Aboriginal peoples and the Canadian forest sector: a typology of arrangements for establishing control and determining benefits of forestlands.

Over the last thirty years, Aboriginal peoples, forestry companies and governments in Canada have developed a wide variety of arrangements and mechanisms aimed at fostering collaboration and establishing an increasing Aboriginal role in managing and harvesting forestlands. This paper seeks to facilitate the analysis and investigation of various forms of collaboration by presenting a typology based upon institutional arrangements and desired outcomes. Development of the typology followed an iterative process of categorisation, description, testing and revision, using scientific and grey literature combined with testing against an ever-widening number of communities; firstly in Quebec, then in six provinces and finally with 474 communities across the country. We identify five principal forms of collaborative arrangement, each with a number of sub-types: treaties and other formal agreements that establish roles and responsibilities; planning and management activities; influence on decision-making; forest tenures; and economic roles. The application and utility of this typology is illustrated through the examples of four communities, each of which is engaged in several different collaborative arrangements. The typology demonstrates the variety of arrangements that are available to encourage Aboriginal involvement in Canada's forest sector while also provided a basis for future work in comparing the benefits of different arrangements or in analysing the effectiveness of policies.

Directional changes in ecological communities and social-ecological systems: a framework for prediction based on Alaskan examples.

In this article we extend the theory of community prediction by presenting seven hypotheses for predicting community structure in a directionally changing world. The first three address well-studied community responses to environmental and ecological change: ecological communities are most likely to exhibit threshold changes in structure when perturbations cause large changes in limiting soil or sediment resources, dominant or keystone species, or attributes of disturbance regime that influence community recruitment. Four additional hypotheses address social-ecological interactions and apply to both ecological communities and social-ecological systems. Human responsiveness to short-term and local costs and benefits often leads to human actions with unintended long-term impacts, particularly those that are far from the site of decision making or are geographically dispersed. Policies are usually based on past conditions of ecosystem services rather than expected future trends. Finally, institutions that strengthen negative feedbacks between human actions and social-ecological consequences can reduce human impacts through more responsive (and thus more effective) management of public ecosystem services. Because of the large role that humans play in modifying ecosystems and ecosystem services, it is particularly important to test and improve social-ecological hypotheses as a basis for shaping appropriate policies for long-term ecosystem resilience.