BCAS1 defines a heterogeneous cell population in diffuse gliomas.

Oligodendrocyte precursor markers have become of great interest to identify new diagnostic and therapeutic targets for diffuse gliomas, since state-of-the-art studies point towards immature oligodendrocytes as a possible source of gliomagenesis. Brain enriched myelin associated protein 1 (BCAS1) is a novel marker of immature oligodendrocytes and was proposed to contribute to tumorigenesis in non-central nervous system tumors. However, BCAS1 role in diffuse glioma is still underexplored. This study analyzes the expression of BCAS1 in different tumor samples from patients with diffuse gliomas (17 oligodendrogliomas; 8 astrocytomas; 60 glioblastomas) and uncovers the molecular and ultrastructural features of BCAS1+ cells by immunostaining and electron microscopy. Our results show that BCAS1+ cells exhibit stellate or spherical morphology with similar ultrastructural features. Stellate and spherical cells were detected as isolated cells in all studied gliomas. Nevertheless, only stellate cells were found to be proliferative and formed tightly packed nodules with a highly proliferative rate in oligodendrogliomas. Our findings provide a comprehensive characterization of the BCAS1+ cell population within diffuse gliomas. The observed proliferative capacity and distribution of BCAS1+ stellate cells, particularly in oligodendrogliomas, highlight BCAS1 as an interesting marker, warranting further investigation into its role in tumor malignancy.

Primary cilia control oligodendrocyte precursor cell proliferation in white matter injury via Hedgehog-independent CREB signaling.

Remyelination after white matter injury (WMI) often fails in diseases such as multiple sclerosis because of improper recruitment and repopulation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) in lesions. How OPCs elicit specific intracellular programs in response to a chemically and mechanically diverse environment to properly regenerate myelin remains unclear. OPCs construct primary cilia, specialized signaling compartments that transduce Hedgehog (Hh) and G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signals. We investigated the role of primary cilia in the OPC response to WMI. Removing cilia from OPCs genetically via deletion of Ift88 results in OPCs failing to repopulate WMI lesions because of reduced proliferation. Interestingly, loss of cilia does not affect Hh signaling in OPCs or their responsiveness to Hh signals but instead leads to dysfunctional cyclic AMP (cAMP)-dependent cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB)-mediated transcription. Because inhibition of CREB activity in OPCs reduces proliferation, we propose that a GPCR/cAMP/CREB signaling axis initiated at OPC cilia orchestrates OPC proliferation during development and in response to WMI.

Radioterapia en pacientes pediátricos con leucemia linfocítica aguda: experiencia de 9 años

Objetivo: Describir las características epidemiológicas y clínicas de los pacientes con leucemia linfocítica aguda atendidos en el Hospital Nacional de Niños "Dr. Carlos Sáenz Herrera", que recibieron radioterapia externa, durante el periodo de enero de 2009 a diciembre de 2017. Métodos: Estudio observacional, descriptivo. Se revisaron retrospectivamente los expedientes clínicos de pacientes pediátricos (0-13 años) con leucemia linfocítica aguda, que recibieron radioterapia externa en el periodo mencionado. Se aplicó un análisis estadístico descriptivo de las variables cualitativas y cuantitativas. Resultados: Se analizó un total de 58 pacientes, de estos el 79,3% fueron hombres. La edad promedio fue de 7,3 años. El 84,2% fueron clasificados como L1, 84,2% con inmunofenotipo B común y el 56,9% eran grupo de alto riesgo al diagnóstico. La principal indicación de radioterapia fue recaída (67,7%). Aproximadamente la mitad se irradió a sistema nervioso central y la otra mitad a testículos. Los principales efectos adversos fueron cutáneos. Conclusiones: Los resultados obtenidos fueron comparables con los reportados en la literatura. La radioterapia es importante en el tratamiento de leucemias, especialmente en pacientes de recaída y de alto riesgo.

Aim: To describe the epidemiological and clinical characteristics of patients with acute lymphocytic leukemia, attended at the National Children´s Hospital "Dr. Carlos Sáenz Herrera" that received external radiation therapy between January 2009 and December 2017. Methods: It is an observational, descriptive study. Clinical records of pediatric patients (0-13 years) with acute lymphoblastic leukemia that received external radiotherapy in the study period were retrospectively reviewed. A descriptive statistical analysis of the qualitative and quantitative variables was applied. Results: 58 patients were studied, 79,3% were males. The mean age was 7,3 years. 84,2% were classified as L1, 84,2% had common B immunophenotype and 56,9% were in the high risk group at diagnosis. The main indication for radiotherapy was relapse (67,7%). About half the patients received radiotherapy to central nervous system and the other half to testicles. The main side effects were cutaneous. Conclusions: The results obtained were comparable to those seen in literature. Radiotherapy is important in leukemia treatment, particularly in relapse and high risk patients.

Small Extracellular Vesicles Secreted by Nigrostriatal Astrocytes Rescue Cell Death and Preserve Mitochondrial Function in Parkinson's Disease.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are emerging as powerful players in cell-to-cell communication both in healthy and diseased brain. In Parkinson's disease (PD)-characterized by selective dopaminergic neuron death in ventral midbrain (VMB) and degeneration of their terminals in striatum (STR)-astrocytes exert dual harmful/protective functions, with mechanisms not fully elucidated. Here, this study shows that astrocytes from the VMB-, STR-, and VMB/STR-depleted brains release a population of small EVs  in a region-specific manner. Interestingly, VMB-astrocytes secreted the highest rate of EVs, which is further exclusively increased in response to CCL3, a chemokine that promotes robust dopaminergic neuroprotection in different PD models. The neuroprotective potential of nigrostriatal astrocyte-EVs is investigated in differentiated versus undifferentiated SH-SY5Y cells exposed to oxidative stress and mitochondrial toxicity. EVs from both VMB- and STR-astrocytes counteract H2 O2 -induced caspase-3 activation specifically in differentiated cells, with EVs from CCL3-treated astrocytes showing a higher protective effect. High resolution respirometry further reveals that nigrostriatal astrocyte-EVs rescue neuronal mitochondrial complex I function impaired by the neurotoxin MPP+ . Notably, only EVs from VMB-astrocyte fully restore ATP production, again specifically in differentiated SH-SY5Y. These results highlight a regional diversity in the nigrostriatal system for the secretion and activities of astrocyte-EVs, with neuroprotective implications for PD.

Glioblastoma disrupts the ependymal wall and extracellular matrix structures of the subventricular zone.

BACKGROUND: Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most aggressive and common type of primary brain tumor in adults. Tumor location plays a role in patient prognosis, with tumors proximal to the lateral ventricles (LVs) presenting with worse overall survival, increased expression of stem cell genes, and increased incidence of distal tumor recurrence. This may be due in part to interaction of GBM with factors of the subventricular zone (SVZ), including those contained within the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). However, direct interaction of GBM tumors with CSF has not been proved and would be hindered in the presence of an intact ependymal cell layer. METHODS: Here, we investigate the ependymal cell barrier and its derived extracellular matrix (ECM) fractones in the vicinity of a GBM tumor. Patient-derived GBM cells were orthotopically implanted into immunosuppressed athymic mice in locations distal and proximal to the LV. A PBS vehicle injection in the proximal location was included as a control. At four weeks post-xenograft, brain tissue was examined for alterations in ependymal cell health via immunohistochemistry, scanning electron microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy. RESULTS: We identified local invading GBM cells within the LV wall and increased influx of CSF into the LV-proximal GBM tumor bulk compared to controls. In addition to the physical disruption of the ependymal cell barrier, we also identified increased signs of compromised ependymal cell health in LV-proximal tumor-bearing mice. These signs include increased accumulation of lipid droplets, decreased cilia length and number, and decreased expression of cell channel proteins. We additionally identified elevated numbers of small fractones in the SVZ within this group, suggesting increased indirect CSF-contained molecule signaling to tumor cells. CONCLUSIONS: Our data is the first to show that LV-proximal GBMs physically disrupt the ependymal cell barrier in animal models, resulting in disruptions in ependymal cell biology and increased CSF interaction with the tumor bulk. These findings point to ependymal cell health and CSF-contained molecules as potential axes for therapeutic targeting in the treatment of GBM.

Intravenous SPION-labeled adipocyte-derived stem cells targeted to the brain by magnetic attraction in a rat stroke model: An ultrastructural insight into cell fate within the brain.

Mesenchymal stem cell therapy after stroke is a promising option investigated in animal models and clinical trials. The intravenous route is commonly used in clinical settings guaranteeing an adequate safety profile although low yields of engraftment. In this report, rats subjected to ischemic stroke were injected with adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) labeled with superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) applying an external magnetic field in the skull to retain the cells. Although most published studies demonstrate viability of ADSCs, only a few have used ultrastructural techniques. In our study, the application of a local magnetic force resulted in a tendency for higher yields of SPION-ADSCs targeting the brain. However, grafted cells displayed morphological signs of death, one day after administration, and correlative microscopy showed active microglia and astrocytes associated in the process of scavenging. Thus, we conclude that, although successfully targeted within the brain, SPION-ADSCs viability was rapidly compromised.

Influence of Group Identification on Malicious and Benign Envy: A Cross-Sectional Developmental Study.

Envy is the result of a social comparison that shows us a negative image of ourselves. The present study addresses the effect of the context of group comparison and group identification on children's expression of this emotion. Through different stories, participants aged between 6 and 11 years were exposed to four contexts of upward social comparison in which they had to adopt the role of the disadvantaged character. From their emotional responses and their decisions in a resource allocation task, three response profiles were created: malicious envy, benign envy, and non-envy. Although we found important differences between verbal and behavioral responses, the results showed greater envy, both malicious and benign, when the envied was an out-group. On the other hand, when the envied belonged to the in-group and competed with a member of the out-group, malicious but not benign envy practically disappeared. With age, envious responses decreased, and non-envious responses increased. The role of social identity in the promotion and inhibition of envy is discussed, as well as the acquisition of emotional display rules in the benign envy and non-envy profiles.

Radioterapia en la población oncológica pediátrica de Costa Rica: experiencia de 2 años / Radiotherapy in the pediatric oncology population of Costa Rica: a 2-year experience

Resumen Objetivo: Determinar las características epidemiológicas, clínicas y terapéuticas de los pacientes con enfermedad oncológica atendidos en el Hospital Nacional de Niños "Dr. Carlos Sáenz Herrera", que recibieron radioterapia externa, durante el periodo de enero de 2015 a diciembre de 2016. Métodos: Estudio observacional, descriptivo, de una serie de casos de pacientes pediátricos con diagnóstico oncológico, que recibieron radioterapia y fueron atendidos durante un periodo de 2 años. Se revisaron los expedientes clínicos para la obtención de los datos de manera retrospectiva, de acuerdo con las variables de interés. Se registraron datos demográficos, el tipo de tumor, el sitio anatómico irradiado, la necesidad de anestesia y el tiempo de espera. Se aplicó un análisis descriptivo de las variables cualitativas y cuantitativas. Resultados: Se analizaron un total de 117 pacientes quienes recibieron radioterapia, de los cuales un 59.0% fueron hombres. La edad promedio fue de 7,7 años. Las leucemias y el grupo de los tumores cerebrales fueron los tipos de tumores más frecuentemente irradiados; siendo el sistema nervioso central el sitio anatómico más tratado, en 56 pacientes (40.6%). La radioterapia curativa fue más frecuente que la paliativa. En 34 pacientes (29.1%) se requirió de anestesia. Todos los pacientes tuvieron que esperar para el inicio de su tratamiento y en una minoría se registró el motivo en relación con una condición no clínica del paciente. Conclusiones: En oncología pediátrica, la radioterapia es una modalidad de tratamiento utilizada mayoritariamente con carácter curativo en pacientes de diferentes edades y ambos sexos, principalmente con diagnóstico de tumores cerebrales y leucemia; algunos pacientes de corta edad pueden requerir anestesia durante el tratamiento. En una minoría de pacientes, se atribuyó a factores no clínicos el tiempo de espera para el inicio de su tratamiento.

Abstract Aim: To determine the epidemiological, clinical and therapeutic characteristics of patients with oncological disease treated at the Hospital Nacional de Niños "Dr. Carlos Sáenz Herrera", who received external radiotherapy, during the period from January 2015 to December 2016. Methods: It is an observational, descriptive study of a series of cases of pediatric patients with an oncologic diagnosis, who received radiotherapy and were treated for a period of 2 years. Clinical records were reviewed to obtain the data retrospectively, according to the variables of interest. Demographic data, tumor type, anatomical site irradiated, need for anesthesia, and waiting time were recorded. A descriptive analysis of the qualitative and quantitative variables was applied. Results: A total of 117 patients who received radiotherapy were analyzed, of which 59.0% were men. The average age was 7.7 years. Leukemias and the group of brain tumors were the most frequently irradiated tumor types; being the central nervous system the most treated anatomical site, in 56 patients (40.6%). Curative radiotherapy was more frequent than palliative. In 34 patients (29.1%) anesthesia was required. All patients had to wait for the start of their treatment and in a minority the reason was recorded in relation to a non-clinical condition of the patient. Conclusión: In pediatric oncology, radiotherapy is a treatment modality used predomi- nantly for curative purposes in patients of different ages and both sexes, most commonly with brain tumors and leukemia; some young patients may require anesthesia during treatment. In a minority of patients, the waiting time for the start of their treatment was attributed to non-clinical factors.

CYP21A2 mutations in pediatric patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia in Costa Rica.

Steroid 21-hydroxylase deficiency accounts for 95% of congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) cases. Newborn screening has allowed for early detection of the disease, and currently, molecular analysis can identify the genotypes of these patients. Phenotype-genotype correlation has been well described in previous studies. In Costa Rica, there is no data about the genetic background of these patients, nor their phenotypic correlation. DESIGN: Observational, retrospective, descriptive study based on the review of patient records who had a diagnosis of CAH and were performed molecular analysis using gene sequencing or MLPA during the period from 2006 to 2018 (N = 58). OBJECTIVE: To describe the clinical and genetic characteristics of CAH patients due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency at the National Children's Hospital "Dr. Carlos Sáenz Herrera", Caja Costarricense de Seguro Social (CCSS) in Costa Rica. RESULTS: 53% (31/58) of the patients were male and 80% (37/46) were born full term; 72% (42/58) had salt wasting phenotype, 9% (5/58) simple virilizing phenotype and 19% (11/58) non-classic phenotype. The most frequent variants were c.292+5G>A in 26% (15/58) of patients and Del/Del in 21% (12/58) of them. CONCLUSIONS: The most frequent mutation in our study population was the c.292+5G>A, which was found in 15/58 patients. This rare variant has only been reported in three other studies so far but as an infrequent mutation in CAH patients. The genetic characteristics of Costa Rican patients differ from what has been documented worldwide and could respond to a founder effect.

Wnt-Dependent Oligodendroglial-Endothelial Interactions Regulate White Matter Vascularization and Attenuate Injury.

Recent studies have indicated oligodendroglial-vascular crosstalk during brain development, but the underlying mechanisms are incompletely understood. We report that oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) contact sprouting endothelial tip cells in mouse, ferret, and human neonatal white matter. Using transgenic mice, we show that increased or decreased OPC density results in cognate changes in white matter vascular investment. Hypoxia induced increases in OPC numbers, vessel density and endothelial cell expression of the Wnt pathway targets Apcdd1 and Axin2 in white matter, suggesting paracrine OPC-endothelial signaling. Conditional knockout of OPC Wntless resulted in diminished white matter vascular growth in normoxia, whereas loss of Wnt7a/b function blunted the angiogenic response to hypoxia, resulting in severe white matter damage. These findings indicate that OPC-endothelial cell interactions regulate neonatal white matter vascular development in a Wnt-dependent manner and further suggest this mechanism is important in attenuating hypoxic injury.

Immunogold Labeling to Detect Streptococcus pyogenes Cas9 in Cell Culture and Tissues by Electron Microscopy.

The CRISPR-Cas9 system is a powerful and yet precise DNA-editing tool in rapid development. By combining immunogold labeling and electron microscopy with the novel CRISPR-Cas9 system, we propose a new method to gain insight into the biology of this tool. In this study, we analyzed different Cas9-induced systems such as HEK293T cell line, murine oligodendrocyte progenitor cells, brain and liver to detect Cas9 expression by immunoelectron microscopy. Our results show that while Cas9 expression could be found in the nuclei and nucleopores of transfected HEK293T cells, in transfected oligodendrocyte precursor cells, Cas9 was found in cytoplasmic vesicles. In Cas9 constitutively expressing oligodendrocyte precursors, the enzyme was located in the cytoplasm of nondividing cells. Finally, while in the liver Cas9 was detected in different cell types, in the brain we found no specifically labeled cells. In conclusion, immunoelectron microscopy opens a new spectrum of opportunities to study the CRISPR-Cas9 system in a more precise manner.

Using phage display technology to obtain Crybodies active against non-target insects.

The insecticidal Cry toxins produced by Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) are increasingly important in the biological control of insect pests and vectors of human disease. Markets for Bt products and transgenic plants expressing their toxins are driven by their specificity, safety and the move away from chemical control agents. However, the high specificity of Cry toxins can also prove to be a limitation when there is no known Cry toxin active against a particular target. Novel activities can be discovered by screening natural Bt isolates or through modifications of the Cry proteins. Here we demonstrate the use of λ-phage displaying Cry1Aa13 toxin variants modified in domain II loop 2 (Crybodies) to select retargeted toxins. Through biopanning using gut tissue from larvae of the non-target insect Aedes aegypti, we isolated a number of phage for further testing. Two of the overexpressed Cry toxin variants showed significant activity against A. aegypti larvae while another induced mortality at the pupal stage. We present the first report of the use of phage display to identify novel activities toward insects from distant taxonomic Orders and establish this technology based on the use of Crybodies as a powerful tool for developing tailor-made insecticides against new target insects.

A Review of Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence (EDXRF) as an Analytical Tool in Numismatic Studies.

Energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (EDXRF) as an analytical technique in studies of ancient coins is summarized and reviewed. Specific EDXRF applications in historical studies, in studies of the corrosion of coins, and in studies of the optimal working conditions of some laser-based treatment for the cleaning of coins are described.

Skilful communication: Emotional facial expressions recognition in very old adults.

OBJECTIVES: The main objective of this study was to assess the changes associated with ageing in the ability to identify emotional facial expressions and to what extent such age-related changes depend on the intensity with which each basic emotion is manifested. METHODS: A randomised controlled trial carried out on 107 subjects who performed a six alternative forced-choice emotional expressions identification task. The stimuli consisted of 270 virtual emotional faces expressing the six basic emotions (happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, anger and disgust) at three different levels of intensity (low, pronounced and maximum). The virtual faces were generated by facial surface changes, as described in the Facial Action Coding System (FACS). RESULTS: A progressive age-related decline in the ability to identify emotional facial expressions was detected. The ability to recognise the intensity of expressions was one of the most strongly impaired variables associated with age, although the valence of emotion was also poorly identified, particularly in terms of recognising negative emotions. CONCLUSIONS: Nurses should be mindful of how ageing affects communication with older patients. In this study, very old adults displayed more difficulties in identifying emotional facial expressions, especially low intensity expressions and those associated with difficult emotions like disgust or fear.

Identification, sequencing and comparative analysis of pBp15.S plasmid from the newly described entomopathogen Bacillus pumilus 15.1.

The Bacillus pumilus 15.1 strain, a recently described entomopathogenic strain active against Ceratitis capitata, contains at least two extrachromosomal elements, pBp15.1S and pBp15.1B. Given that B. pumilus is not a typical entomopathogenic bacterium, the acquisition of this extrachromosomal DNA may explain why B. pumilus 15.1 is toxic to an insect. One of the plasmids present in the strain, the pBp15.1S plasmid, was sub-cloned, sequenced and analyzed using bioinformatics to identify any potential virulence factor. The pBp15.1S plasmid was found to be 7785 bp in size with a GC content of 35.7% and 11 putative ORFs. A replication module typical of a small rolling circle plasmid and a sensing and regulatory system specific for plasmids was found in pBp15.1S. Additionally, we demonstrated the existence of ssDNA in plasmid preparations suggesting that pBp15.1S replicates by the small rolling circle mechanism. A gene cluster present in plasmid pPZZ84 from a distantly isolated B. pumilus strain was also present in pBp15.1S. The plasmid copy number of pBp15.1S in exponentially growing B. pumilus cells was determined to be 33 copies per chromosome. After an extensive plasmid characterization, no known virulence factor was found so a search in the other extrachromosomal elements of the bacteria is needed.

HPLC-DAD determination of CNS-acting drugs in human blood, plasma, and serum.

This is a review of the literature regarding high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection (HPLC-DAD) procedures for the detection and determination of several categories of central nervous system-acting drugs in blood, plasma, or serum samples. Psychiatric and neurological drugs, such as antidepressants, benzodiazepines, antipsychotics, antiepileptics, and antiparkinsonians, have been included because of their relevance to therapeutic drug monitoring and systematic toxicological analysis. Articles published between 2000 and January 2012 have been taken into consideration. This review has focused on methodological approaches, sample pretreatment techniques, and other practical aspects.

Abuso sexual en menores de edad: generalidades, consecuencias y prevención / Sexual abuse of minors: general, consequences and prevention

Introducción: El abuso sexual en menores de edad es uno de los tipos de maltrato infantil con peores repercusiones en sus víctimas y que usualmente coexiste con otros tipos de violencia. Incluye tanto agravios que no involucran contacto físico como aquellos que sí lo hacen, lo que cubre una amplia gama de posibilidades. Objetivo: Debido a lo trascendental de esta problemática, se realizó está revisión bibliográfica con el fin de exponer la importancia del tema de abuso sexual en menores de edad, sus aspectos generales, consecuencias y medida preventivas. Síntesis de datos: El abuso sexual es frecuente. Las víctimas suelen ser mujeres a pesar de que existen ciertos factores de riesgo que predisponen a ciertos niños a ser agredidos, y sus abusadores por lo general son personas cercanas a ellos. Las consecuencias tanto a corto como largo plazo abarcan todos los aspectos del ser humano y la magnitud de su gravedad dependerá de diversos factores. Existen métodos de prevención primaria y secundaria, que van desde programas educativos y campañas publicitarias hasta medidas judiciales. Conclusiones: Es necesaria más información relativa al abuso sexual en menores y es imprescindible liberarse de los estereotipos en torno a esta problemática para detectar a tiempo posibles casos de abuso. Toda víctima deberá obtener una atención individualizada posterior al suceso, dirigida a atenuar las secuelas. El abordaje del abuso sexual se deberá hacer desde diversas perspectivas y todos estamos a cargo de su combate.

Childhood sexual abuse is a type of child maltreatment with the worst consequences upon their victims and usually coexists with other types of violence. It includes actions which do not involve physical contact, as well as those that do, thus embracing a wide variety of possibilities. Objective: Due to the topic´s magnitude, this review was made in order to address the importance of childhood sexual abuse, its general facts, consequences and preventive measures. Data synthesis: Sexual abuse is frequent. Victims are usually women although there are some risk factors that predispose certain children to be victims themselves and offenders are generally related to the child. Short- and long-term consequences comprise every aspect of the human being and their magnitude depends on different factors. There are primary and secondary preventive measures that range from educational programmes and media campaigns to justice system strategies. Conclusions: More information about childhood sexual abuse is needed and it is indispensable to get rid of this subject´s stereotypes in order to detect suspected cases of abuse on time. Every victim must be assured an individualized attention after the abuse so as to ameliorate the consequences. Sexual abuse shall be approached from different perspectives and we are all in charge of fighting against it.

Guía práctica para disección e identificación de estructuras anatómicas a nivel facial en un animal porcino / Practical guide for dissection and identification of anatomical structures of the face in pigs

La investigación en los modelos animales de experimentación es una herramienta que permite la adquisición de conocimientos previo a la aplicación de los mismos en un ser humano. El objetivo de este trabajo es presentar una base ilustrativa y guiada de disección de las estructuras más importantes a nivel facial en un animal porcino para que sirva de base para futuros trabajos de experimentación, pues se encontró la necesidad de tener una guía clínica al iniciar un trabajo de investigación experimental a nivel facial en este tipo de animal(AU)

Research using experimental animal models is a tool that enables knowledge to be acquired before it is applied in human beings. Clinical guidelines are needed when starting experimental research work on animals. The purpose of this paper is to present an illustrative guide to the dissection of the most important facial structures in pigs, so that it can serve as a basis for future experimental works(AU)

La Medición en el Ámbito Educativo / Educational Measurement

Se examina el papel que juega la medición en el trabajo del psicólogo educativo en el centro escolar y también dentro del campo general de la educación, pasando revista a los instrumentos que se utilizan en tres importantes ámbitos que ilustran las necesidades de información que tienen los distintos agentes educativos: los exámenes que ponen los profesores a sus alumnos, la prueba de acceso a la Universidad y las pruebas utilizadas en las evaluaciones del sistema educativo. Seguidamente se indican las claves para obtener buenas medidas educativas para finalizar realizando algunas llamadas de atención sobre puntos de interés relativos al trabajo del psicólogo educativo dentro del centro escolar y también a la medición en el campo general de la educación (AU)

The role played by measurement in education as well as in the job carried out by an educational psychologist within school is reviewed. Three important measuring devices are examined, so as to show the kind of information that is needed in different areas: the exams teachers give regularly to students in the classroom, the college entrance test, and the tests administered in programs for national or international student assessments. Therewith, a discussion about how to achieve sound educational measures is presented. Finally, some points of interest are highlighted as far as the job of the educational psychologist within school is concerned and also in the more general field of education (AU)