Beliefs regarding stimulant medication effects among college students with a history of past or current usage.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the beliefs of ADHD college students concerning stimulant medications and to apply the theory of planned behavior toward better understanding the factors instrumental in decisions regarding stimulant use. METHOD: A cross-sectional, correlational design was used, and students completed a survey under controlled laboratory conditions. Participants were 193 students taking introductory psychology who self-reported receiving a diagnosis of attention deficit disorder or ADHD and a treatment history of using stimulant medications. RESULTS: Beliefs regarding the effects of medication use are represented by four factors ((i.e., improved attention/academics, loss of authentic self, social self-enhancement, and common side effects), where the first three significantly and systematically differentiate between those currently using stimulants and those who are not. CONCLUSION: To understand decisions regarding stimulant use, it is important to consider how college students perceive the positive and negative effects of the medication with respect to sense of self and social relationships.

Cognitive and electrophysiological correlates of the bilingual stroop effect.

The color word Stroop effect in bilinguals is commonly half the magnitude when the written and naming languages are different (between) than when they are the same (within). This between-within language Stroop difference (BWLS) is likened to a response set effect, with greater response conflict for response relevant than irrelevant words. The nature of the BWLS was examined using a bilingual Stroop task. In a given block (Experiment 1), color congruent and incongruent words appeared in the naming language or not (single), or randomly in both languages (mixed). The BWLS effect was present for both balanced and unbalanced bilinguals, but only partially supported a response set explanation. As expected, color incongruent trials during single language blocks, lead to slower response times within than between languages. However, color congruent trials during mixed language blocks led to slower times between than within languages, indicating that response-irrelevant stimuli interfered with processing. In Experiment 2, to investigate the neural timing of the BWLS effect, event related potentials were recorded while balanced bilinguals named silently within and between languages. Replicating monolingual findings, an N450 effect was observed with larger negative amplitude for color incongruent than congruent trials (350-550 ms post-stimulus onset). This effect was equivalent within and between languages, indicating that color words from both languages created response conflict, contrary to a strict response set effect. A sustained negativity (SN) followed with larger amplitude for color incongruent than congruent trials, resolving earlier for between than within language Stroop. This effect shared timing (550-700 ms), but not morphology or scalp distribution with the commonly reported sustained potential. Finally, larger negative amplitude (200-350 ms) was observed between than within languages independent of color congruence. This negativity, likened to a no-go N2, may reflect processes of inhibitory control that facilitate the resolution of conflict at the SN, while the N450 reflects parallel processing of distracter words, independent of response set (or language). In sum, the BWLS reflects brain activity over time with contributions from language and color conflict at different points.