Visual perceptual learning is similar across the extrafoveal central visual fields.

PURPOSE: Visual perceptual learning occurs with the presentation of novel visual stimuli at retinal sites near the fovea to 20 degrees eccentricities. It was unclear if the magnitude and rate of visual learning were similar across the central visual fields or if visual learning decreased with increasing eccentricity. The robustness of learning across the visual fields may affect the magnitude of computer-aided visual recovery after visual brain injury. Therefore we determined if eccentricity was a factor that influenced perceptual learning. METHODS: Subjects were trained to detect the presence or absence of a single line oriented differently (odd-element) from an array of lines that otherwise had the same orientation. The odd-element line was presented 3 degrees, 9 degrees or 18 degrees from fixation. RESULTS: Perceptual performance improved during training trials with a similar magnitude and similar learning curve slopes at all 3 eccentricities. Pre- and post-training performance improved to a similar magnitude at 3 vs 9 degrees in 4 of 4 subjects tested and at 9 degrees vs 18 degrees in 4 of 5 subjects. In the fifth subject there was no post-training improvement in performance at 18 degrees. CONCLUSION: Visual perceptual learning is similar across the extrafoveal central visual fields in almost all subjects.

Growth implants reduced tenderness of steaks from steers and heifers with different genetic potentials for growth and marbling.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of growth implants on the carcass characteristics and tenderness of steers and heifers with different genetic potentials for growth, lean meat yield production, and marbling. Two experiments were conducted. Experiment 1 evaluated Angus steers sired by bulls with high EPD for retail product yield or marbling. Implant treatment was imposed randomly within sire groups. Loins (Institutional Meat Purchasing Specifications 180) were collected from each carcass and cut into three 2.54-cm steaks aged for 7, 14 and 21 d to evaluate tenderness. The second experiment evaluated steers and heifers of British and Continental breed descent. Steers and heifers were slaughtered after 120 d on feed. Loin sections were collected, and one 2.54-cm steak aged 7 d was used for tenderness analysis. When implants were used in Angus steers, HCW and LM area increased, whereas internal fat and marbling decreased (P < 0.01). In Angus steers, sire type did not affect shear force values of steaks; however, implant use significantly increased shear force values (P < 0.01). Carcasses from cattle of Continental breed descent were significantly heavier than carcasses of British breed descent with larger LM area, slightly less fat, and a reduced yield grade (P < 0.01). Also, steer carcasses were heavier than heifer carcasses with larger LM (P < 0.05), but no effect of sex on fat depth, internal fat, yield grade or marbling was observed. No significant interactions were seen between growth implant and breed or between growth implant and sex for shear force values. Shear force values were significantly less for steaks from steers and heifers of British decent compared with steers and heifers of Continental descent (P < 0.01). Steaks from implanted steers and heifers had significantly (P < 0.01) greater shear force values than steaks from steers and heifers not implanted. Use of growth implants in growing cattle resulted in significantly heavier carcass weights, larger LM area, and reduced internal fat. However, implant use also reduced the amount of marbling along with contributing to reduced tenderness. Complicating the tenderness issue is the increased shear force values reported for heifers as well as steers of Continental breed descent. Use of implants may contribute to tenderness variability because of different animal responses to implants.

Perceptual learning of line orientation modifies the effects of transcranial magnetic stimulation of visual cortex.

Perceptual learning may be accompanied by physiological changes in early visual cortex. We used transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to test the postulate that perceptual learning of a visual task initially performed at 60-65% accuracy strengthens visual processing in early visual cortex. Single pulse TMS was delivered to human occipital cortex at time delays of 70-154 ms after the onset of an odd-element, line orientation discrimination task. When TMS was delivered at a delay of 84 ms or later the accuracy of visual discrimination was transiently degraded in ten subjects. As visual performance in control trials without TMS improved with training, the absolute magnitude of TMS suppression of performance decreased in parallel. This result occurred both when TMS was delivered to broad areas of occipital cortex and when TMS was optimally delivered to early occipital cortex. No change in TMS suppression was observed when three new subjects were given feedback during an odd-element task that did not require substantial perceptual learning. Thus, perceptual learning improved visual performance and reduced TMS suppression of early visual cortex in parallel.

Nuclear accumulation of FGF-2 is associated with proliferation of human astrocytes and glioma cells.

FGF-2 has been implicated in the neoplastic transformation of glioma cells and in the transition of normal quiescent astrocytes to a proliferating, reactive state. In the present study we have observed that in human glial cells, levels and subcellular localization of FGF-2 are different in quiescent and proliferating cells. FGF-2 was detected in the cytoplasm of non-reactive astrocytes in human brain sections. In contrast FGF-2 was located within the cytoplasm and nuclei of reactive astrocytes in gliotic brain tissue and in neoplastic cells of glioma tumors. In vitro, FGF-2 was found predominantly in the nucleus of subconfluent proliferating astrocytes, but was detected only in the cytoplasm of density arrested quiescent astrocytes. Our results suggest that reduced cell contact stimulates nuclear accumulation of FGF-2, accompanying mitotic activation of reactive human astrocytes. FGF-2 was constitutively localized to the nucleus of continuously proliferating glioma cells independent of cell density. A role for intracellular FGF-2 was further suggested by the observation that glioma cells that are not stimulated to proliferate by extracellular FGF-2 proliferated faster when transfected with FGF-2 expressing vectors. This increased proliferation correlated with nuclear accumulation of FGF-2. Cell proliferation was attenuated by 5'-deoxy-5'-methylthioadenosine, a FGF-2 receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor that acts within the cell, but was unaffected by myo-inositol hexakis [dihydrogen phosphate] that disrupts FGF-2 binding to plasma membrane receptors. Our results indicate that FGF-2 serves as a nuclear regulator of proliferation in astrocytic cells. In glioma cells, the constitutive presence of FGF-2 in the nucleus may promote proliferation that is insensitive to cell contact inhibition.

Protease sensitivity and nuclease resistance of the scrapie agent propagated in vitro in neuroblastoma cells.

The scrapie agent has been propagated in vitro in mouse neuroblastoma cells. To further characterize the tissue culture-derived scrapie agent, we studied the effects of protease and nuclease digestion on the agent derived from these cells. The scrapie agent in these cells was found to be resistant to protease digestions for short times but was inactivated by prolonged digestion at high protease concentrations. In contrast, digestion with a variety of nucleases did not alter the agent titer. These results demonstrate that the agent requires an essential protein or proteins for infectivity. If the agent also contains a nucleic acid genome, it must be more nuclease resistant than the majority of cellular DNA and RNA. These properties of the tissue culture-derived scrapie agent were identical to those of brain-derived scrapie agent and thus cannot be attributed to secondary effects of tissue pathology, since the infected cell cultures show no cytopathic effects as a result of infection.

Normal and scrapie-associated forms of prion protein differ in their sensitivities to phospholipase and proteases in intact neuroblastoma cells.

Previous studies have indicated that scrapie infection results in the accumulation of a proteinase K-resistant form of an endogenous brain protein generally referred to as prion protein (PrP). The molecular nature of the scrapie-associated modification of PrP accounting for proteinase K resistance is not known. As an approach to understanding the cellular events associated with the PrP modification in brain tissue, we sought to identify proteinase K-resistant PrP (PrP-res) in scrapie-infected neuroblastoma cells in vitro and to compare properties of PrP-res with those of its normal proteinase K-sensitive homolog, PrP-sen. PrP-res was detected by immunoblot in scrapie-infected but not uninfected neuroblastoma clones. Densitometry of immunoblots indicated that there was two- to threefold more PrP-res than PrP-sen in one infected clone. Metabolic labeling and membrane immunofluorescence experiments indicated that PrP-sen was located on the cell surface and could be removed from intact cells by phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C and proteases. In contrast, PrP-res was not removed after reaction with these enzymes. Thus, either the scrapie-associated PrP-res was not on the cell surface or it was there in a form that is resistant to these hydrolytic enzymes. Attempts to detect intracellular PrP-res by immunofluorescent staining of fixed and permeabilized cells revealed that PrP was present in discrete perinuclear Golgi-like structures. However, the staining pattern was similar in both scrapie-infected and uninfected clones, and thus the intracellular staining may have represented only PrP-sen. Analysis of scrapie infectivity in cells treated with extracellular phospholipase, proteinase K, and trypsin indicated that, like PrP-res, the scrapie agent was not removed from the infected cells by any of these enzymes.

Bovine papillomavirus E2 repressor mutant displays a high-copy-number phenotype and enhanced transforming activity.

The methionine codon at bovine papillomavirus type 1 nucleotide 3091 was mutated to determine whether it may serve as an initiation codon for an E2 transcriptional repressor protein and to determine the role of the repressor in the biological activities of the virus. A series of transient expression experiments with CV1 cells documented that the mutation reduced expression of repressor activity from the viral genome and resulted in increased expression of the E5 transforming gene. Viral genomes containing the mutation displayed enhanced transforming activity in several assays in mouse C127 cells, including focus formation, colony formation in agarose, and tumorigenicity. In transformed cells, the mutant viral DNA was maintained as a plasmid with approximately 500 genomes per cell, whereas the wild-type copy number was approximately 75. These results indicate that the wild-type bovine papillomavirus type 1 genome encodes an E2 repressor protein that moderates the viral transforming activity and allows maintenance of the viral DNA at a relatively low copy number.

Papillomavirus-associated inductions of cellular proteins in mouse C127 cells: correlation with the presence of open reading frame E2.

Bovine papillomavirus type 1 (BPV-1) readily transforms mouse C127 cells, conferring the ability to grow in soft agar and to form tumors in athymic (nu/nu) mice. Electrophoresis of total cellular proteins from these BPV-transformed lines on ultra-high resolution, giant two-dimensional gels displays the presence of novel, papillomavirus-related protein phenotypes. Analysis of the established BPV-1-transformed C127 cell lines, ID13 and ID14, reveals a set of six proteins which are either absent or synthesized at extremely low levels in the parental cell line. One of these proteins is also present in v-ras-transformed C127 cells, but none of the others are found in cells transformed by a variety of viral oncogenes, including the polyomavirus middle T, v-mos, or v-fes. The genome of BPV-1 contains two separate open reading frames (ORFs), E5 and E6, which can act independently to transform C127 cells. In addition, trans-activator and repressor proteins encoded respectively by the full-length and carboxy-terminal E2 ORF regulate the level of expression of other BPV-1 genes. We examined 34 cell lines transformed by intact and subgenomic recombinant DNAs of BPV-1. Cells harboring BPV-1 DNAs engineered to eliminate the expression of ORFs E4, E5, E6, or E7 display five of the PV-associated proteins, but these proteins are not seen in lines lacking the full E2 ORF. Moreover, G418-selected nontransformed cells expressing E2 cDNA from an SV40 promoter exhibit these proteins at high levels. Surprisingly, these proteins are also present in cells containing BPV-1 DNAs with amino-terminal E2 deletions, suggesting that these PV-associated proteins represent novel cellular responses to a factor encoded within the E2-C gene region.

Open reading frames E6 and E7 of bovine papillomavirus type 1 are both required for full transformation of mouse C127 cells.

A series of mutations in open reading frames (ORFs) E6 and E7 of bovine papillomavirus type 1 (BPV1) was constructed to analyze the roles of these ORFs in transformation of mouse C127 cells. The mutations were designed to prevent synthesis of specific proteins encoded by these genes. None of the mutations caused a decrease in the focus-forming activity of the full-length viral genome or in the ability of the viral DNA to replicate as a high-copy-number plasmid. Analysis of these mutants in the absence of a functional BPV1 E5 gene revealed a weak focus-forming activity encoded by ORF E6. Mutations preventing synthesis of the E6 protein did cause defects in anchorage-independent growth and tumorigenicity of transfected and transformed cells. However, a frameshift mutation between the first and second ATG codons of ORF E6 did not inhibit induction of colony formation, suggesting that translation from the first methionine codon is not required. Mutations that inactivated ORF E7 or E6/E7 individually did not inhibit induction of colony formation in agarose. However, a defect in this activity was caused by simultaneous disruption of both ORF E7 and ORF E6/E7 when they were expressed from the full-length viral genome but not when they were expressed under the control of a retrovirus long terminal repeat. These results suggest that translation of both ORF E6 and the 3' end of ORF E7 is required for efficient induction of anchorage-independent growth by the intact BPV1 genome.

Mutational analysis of open reading frame E4 of bovine papillomavirus type 1.

Open reading frame (ORF) E4 is a 353-base-pair ORF of bovine papillomavirus type 1. To determine the biological activities of this ORF in mouse C127 cells, we analyzed the effects of two constructed mutations which are predicted to prevent synthesis of ORF E4 proteins while leaving the amino acid sequence encoded by the overlapping ORF E2 unchanged. Neither mutation interfered with the abilities of the mutants to efficiently induce focus formation, induce growth in soft agarose, or transactivate an inducible bovine papillomavirus type 1 enhancer. Also, neither mutation prevented establishment of the viral DNA as an extrachromosomal plasmid in transformed cells. These results suggest that ORF E4 proteins are not required for these biological activities, and they are consistent with the observation of others (J. Doorbar, D. Campbell, R. J. A. Grand, and P. H. Gallimore, EMBO J. 5:355-362, 1986) that the ORF E4 protein of a human papillomavirus is associated with late gene expression during papilloma formation.

Inhibition by retinoic acid of murine retrovirus-induced cellular transformation and tumor formation.

The effect of all-trans-retinoic acid (RA) on cellular transformation and on tumorigenicity of retrovirally transformed cells was investigated. RA treatment of NRK and NIH/3T3 cells transformed by BALB/c murine sarcoma virus (MuSV), Kirsten murine sarcoma virus (K-MuSV), and simian sarcoma virus resulted in a significant reduction in anchorage-dependent growth of only K-MuSV-transformed NRK cells. A 62% reduction in cell number was observed at 10(-5) M RA. In contrast, anchorage-independent growth induced by each of the viruses tested was suppressed by RA. Balb/cMSV3T3 cells showed the greatest level of sensitivity with a significant reduction in anchorage-independent growth occurring at 10(-9) M RA. The level of cytoplasmic retinoic acid-binding protein (CRABP) was determined in both parent and transformed cell lines. CRABP was present at a high level in all 3T3 cell types but was absent in all NRK cell lines. For testing the antineoplastic activity of RA in vivo, Balb/cMSV3T3 cells were injected intradermally into nude mice. Subsequent treatment of the tumor sites of these animals by topical application of RA resulted in a significant reduction in both tumor incidence and tumor size, confirming the in vitro results. Analysis of the level of v-onc mRNA revealed that inhibition of retroviral transformation by RA was not due to a decrease in transcription of the v-onc genes.

Pressure politics revisited: the anti-abortion campaign.

PIP: Focus is on the anti-abortion campaign in the United States as an extreme example of the operations of pressure groups. The history of the abortion controversy is reviewed, and recent activities of anti-abortion groups in the state of Pennsylvania are assessed. Abortion -- an extremely divisive issue -- is irresolvable by ordinary political process. 2 positions, fundamentally opposed to each other, are supported by uncompromising moral commitment to abstract principle. The People Concerned for the Unborn Child (PCUC) directs its political focus exclusively toward the abortion issue, backing whatever parties or candidates take the appropriate pro-life stances on that issue. PCUC has over 7000 dues-paying members in 12 chapters in Western Pennsylvania. It maintains contact and coordinates its activities with other state-based pro-life organizations. PCUC and its allies have claimed responsibility for some successes in the areas of passage of legislation to restrict access to abortions and passage of a human life amendment to forbid abortions. The primary characteristics of the politics of the pro-life movement is its central focus on the abortion issue, and maintaining such a narrow focus has some organizational advantages. There are notable parallels between the current campaign for a human life amendment and the earlier prohibition campaign.^ieng