Recent advances and future directions on small molecule VEGFR inhibitors in oncological conditions.

"A journey of mixed emotions" is a quote that best describes the progress chart of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR) inhibitors as cancer therapeutics in the last decade. Exhilarated with the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approvals of numerous VEGFR inhibitors coupled with the annoyance of encountering the complications associated with their use, drug discovery enthusiasts are on their toes with an unswerving determination to enhance the rate of translation of VEGFR inhibitors from preclinical to clinical stage. The recently crafted armory of VEGFR inhibitors is a testament to their growing dominance over other antiangiogenic therapies for cancer treatment. This review perspicuously underscores the earnest attempts of the researchers to extract the antiproliferative potential of VEGFR inhibitors through the design of mechanistically diverse structural assemblages. Moreover, this review encompasses sections on structural/molecular properties and physiological functions of VEGFR, FDA-approved VEGFR inhibitors, and hurdles restricting the activity range/clinical applicability of VEGFR targeting antitumor agents. In addition, tactics to overcome the limitations of VEGFR inhibitors are discussed. A clear-cut viewpoint transmitted through this compilation can provide practical directions to push the cart of VEGFR inhibitors to advanced-stage clinical investigations in diverse malignancies.

Leveraging a rationally designed veliparib-based anilide eliciting anti-leukemic effects for the design of pH-responsive polymer nanoformulation.

Careful recruitment of the components of the HDAC inhibitory template culminated in veliparib-based anilide 8 that elicited remarkable cell growth inhibitory effects against HL-60 cell lines mediated via dual modulation of PARP [(IC50 (PARP1) = 0.02 nM) and IC50 (PARP2) = 1 nM)] and HDACs (IC50 value = 0.05, 0.147 and 0.393 µM (HDAC1, 2 and 3). Compound 8 downregulated the expression levels of signatory biomarkers of PARP and HDAC inhibition. Also, compound 8 arrested the cell cycle at the G0/G1 phase and induced autophagy. Polymer nanoformulation (mPEG-PCl copolymeric micelles loaded with compound 8) was prepared by the nanoprecipitation technique. The mPEG-PCL diblock copolymer was prepared by ring-opening polymerization method using stannous octoate as a catalyst. The morphology of the compound 8@mPEG-PCL was examined using TEM and the substance was determined to be monodispersed, spherical in form, and had an average diameter of 138 nm. The polymer nanoformulation manifested pH-sensitive behaviour as a greater release of compound 8 was observed at 6.2 pH as compared to 7.4 pH mimicking physiological settings. The aforementioned findings indicate that the acidic pH of the tumour microenvironment might stimulate the nanomedicine release which in turn can attenuate the off-target effects precedentially claimed to be associated with HDAC inhibitors.

Dual inhibition of CYP17A1 and HDAC6 by abiraterone-installed hydroxamic acid overcomes temozolomide resistance in glioblastoma through inducing DNA damage and oxidative stress.

Glioblastoma (GBM) is a highly aggressive and treatment-resistant brain tumor, necessitating novel therapeutic strategies. In this study, we present a mechanistic breakthrough by designing and evaluating a series of abiraterone-installed hydroxamic acids as potential dual inhibitors of CYP17A1 and HDAC6 for GBM treatment. We established the correlation of CYP17A1/HDAC6 overexpression with tumor recurrence and temozolomide resistance in GBM patients. Compound 12, a dual inhibitor, demonstrated significant anti-GBM activity in vitro, particularly against TMZ-resistant cell lines. Mechanistically, compound 12 induced apoptosis, suppressed recurrence-associated genes, induced oxidative stress and initiated DNA damage response. Furthermore, molecular modeling studies confirmed its potent inhibitory activity against CYP17A1 and HDAC6. In vivo studies revealed that compound 12 effectively suppressed tumor growth in xenograft and orthotopic mouse models without inducing significant adverse effects. These findings highlight the potential of dual CYP17A1 and HDAC6 inhibition as a promising strategy for overcoming treatment resistance in GBM and offer new hope for improved therapeutic outcomes.

First-in-Class Dual EZH2-HSP90 Inhibitor Eliciting Striking Antiglioblastoma Activity In Vitro and In Vivo.

Structural analysis of tazemetostat, an FDA-approved EZH2 inhibitor, led us to pinpoint a suitable site for appendage with a pharmacophoric fragment of second-generation HSP90 inhibitors. Resultantly, a magnificent dual EZH2/HSP90 inhibitor was pinpointed that exerted striking cell growth inhibitory efficacy against TMZ-resistant Glioblastoma (GBM) cell lines. Exhaustive explorations of chemical probe 7 led to several revelations such as (i) compound 7 increased apoptosis/necrosis-related gene expression, whereas decreased M phase/kinetochore/spindle-related gene expression as well as CENPs protein expression in Pt3R cells; (ii) dual inhibitor 7 induced cell cycle arrest at the M phase; (iii) compound 7 suppressed reactive oxygen species (ROS) catabolism pathway, causing the death of TMZ-resistant GBM cells; and (iv) compound 7 elicited substantial in vivo anti-GBM efficacy in experimental mice xenografted with TMZ-resistant Pt3R cells. Collectively, the study results confirm the potential of dual EZH2-HSP90 inhibitor 7 as a tractable anti-GBM agent.

Flavone-based dual PARP-Tubulin inhibitor manifesting efficacy against endometrial cancer.

Structural tailoring of the flavone framework (position 7) via organopalladium-catalyzed C-C bond formation was attempted in this study. The impact of substituents with varied electronic effects (phenyl ring, position 2 of the benzopyran scaffold) on the antitumor properties was also assessed. Resultantly, the efforts yielded a furyl arm bearing benzopyran possessing a 4-fluoro phenyl ring (position 2) (14) that manifested a magnificent antitumor profile against the Ishikawa cell lines mediated through dual inhibition of PARP and tubulin [(IC50 (PARP1) = 74 nM, IC50 (PARP2) = 109 nM) and tubulin (IC50 = 1.4 µM)]. Further investigations confirmed the ability of 14 to induce apoptosis as well as autophagy and cause cell cycle arrest at the G2/M phase. Overall, the outcome of the study culminated in a tractable dual PARP-tubulin inhibitor endowed with an impressive activity profile against endometrial cancer.

N-Heterocycle based Degraders (PROTACs) Manifesting Anticancer Efficacy: Recent Advances.

Proteolysis Targeting Chimeras (PROTACs) technology has emerged as a promising strategy for the treatment of undruggable therapeutic targets. Researchers have invested a great effort in developing druggable PROTACs; however, the problems associated with PROTACs, including poor solubility, metabolic stability, cell permeability, and pharmacokinetic profile, restrict their clinical utility. Thus, there is a pressing need to expand the size of the armory of PROTACs which will escalate the chances of pinpointing new PROTACs with optimum pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics properties. N- heterocycle is a class of organic frameworks that have been widely explored to construct new and novel PROTACs. This review provides an overview of recent efforts of medicinal chemists to develop N-heterocycle-based PROTACs as effective cancer therapeutics. Specifically, the recent endeavors centred on the discovery of PROTACs have been delved into various classes based on the E3 ligase they target (MDM2, IAP, CRBN, and other E3 ligases). Mechanistic insights revealed during the biological assessment of recently furnished Nheterocyclic- based PROTACs constructed via the utilization of ligands for various E3 ligases have been discussed.

Small molecule tractable PARP inhibitors: Scaffold construction approaches, mechanistic insights and structure activity relationship.

Diverse drug design strategies viz. molecular hybridization, substituent installation, scaffold hopping, isosteric replacement, high-throughput screening, induction and separation of chirality, structure modifications of phytoconstituents and use of structural templates have been exhaustively leveraged in the last decade to load the chemical toolbox of PARP inhibitors. Resultantly, numerous promising scaffolds have been pinpointed that in turn have led to the resuscitation of the credence to PARP inhibitors as cancer therapeutics. This review briefly presents the physiological functions of PARPs, the pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics, and the interaction profiles of FDA-approved PARP inhibitors. Comprehensively covered is the section on the drug design strategies employed by drug discovery enthusiasts for furnishing PARP inhibitors. The impact of structural variations in the template of designed scaffolds on enzymatic and cellular activity (structure-activity relationship studies) has been discussed. The insights gained through the biological evaluation such as profiling of physicochemical properties andin vitroADME properties, PK assessments, and high-dose pharmacology are covered.

Prudent tactics to sail the boat of PARP inhibitors as therapeutics for diverse malignancies.

INTRODUCTION: PARP inhibitors block the DNA-repairing mechanism of PARP and represent a promising class of anti-cancer therapy. The last decade has witnessed FDA approvals of several PARP inhibitors, with some undergoing advanced-stage clinical investigation. Medicinal chemists have invested much effort to expand the structure pool of PARP inhibitors. Issues associated with the use of PARP inhibitors that make their standing disconcerting in the pharmaceutical sector have been addressed via the design of new structural assemblages. AREA COVERED: In this review, the authors present a detailed account of the medicinal chemistry campaigns conducted in the recent past for the construction of PARP1/PARP2 inhibitors, PARP1 biased inhibitors, and PARP targeting bifunctional inhibitors as well as PARP targeting degraders (PROTACs). Limitations associated with FDA-approved PARP inhibitors and strategies to outwit the limitations are also discussed. EXPERT OPINION: The PARP inhibitory field has been rejuvenated with numerous tractable entries in the last decade. With numerous magic bullets in hand coupled with unfolded tactics to outwit the notoriety of cancer cells developing resistance toward PARP inhibitors, the dominance of PARP inhibitors as a sagacious option of targeted therapy is highly likely to be witnessed soon.

Rationally designed donepezil-based hydroxamates modulate Sig-1R and HDAC isoforms to exert anti-glioblastoma effects.

The pursuit of activating the HDAC inhibitory template towards additional mechanisms spurred us to design dual modulators (Sig-1R agonist - HDAC inhibitor) via utilization of the core structural unit of donepezil (an FDA-approved anti-Alzheimer's agent) as a surface recognition part. Literature precedents coupled with our experience rendered us with several insights that led to the inclusion of chemically diverse linkers and hydroxamic acid (zinc-binding motif) as the other components of HDAC inhibitory pharmacophore. With this envisionment and clarity, donepezil-based HDAC inhibitory adducts were furnished and exhaustively explored for their anti-GBM efficacy. Resultantly, a magnificently potent HDAC inhibitor 10 [IC50 (HDAC6) = 2.7 nM, IC50 (HDAC2) = 0.71 µM] was pinpointed that was endowed with the ability to: i) exert cell growth inhibitory effects against Human U87MG GBM cells ii) cause death in TMZ-resistant GBM cells iii) induce subG1 arrest in GBM cells iv) prolong the survival of TMZ-resistant U87MG inoculated orthotopic mice (in-vivo studies) v) induce GBM cell apoptosis via binding to Sig-1R. Collectively, the results led to the identification of compound 10 as a tractable anti-GBM agent that deserves detailed investigation for the accomplishment of its candidature as a GBM therapeutic.

Rational design of synthetically tractable HDAC6/HSP90 dual inhibitors to destroy immune-suppressive tumor microenvironment.

INTRODUCTION: The tumor microenvironment is mainly flooded with immunosuppressive cells and inhibitory cytokines, resulting in the inability of effective immune cells to infiltrate and recognize tumors and even the loss of anti-cancer ability. OBJECTIVES: We propose a novel HDAC6/HSP90 dual inhibitory strategy as well as a chemoimmunotherapeutic agent that does not only kill tumor cells but also destroys the tumor microenvironment and enhances anti-cancer immunity. METHODS: A hybrid scaffold construction approach was leveraged to furnish a series of rationally designed resorcinol-based hydroxamates as dual selective HDAC6/HSP90 inhibitors. The drug design campaign commenced with a fragment recruitment process to pinpoint validated structural units to inhibit HDAC6 and HSP90, followed by their installation in flexible HDAC inhibitory templates via an efficient and facile multistep synthetic route. Subsequent evaluations identified a strikingly potent selective HDAC6/HSP90 dual inhibitor (compound 17) via molecular and biological analysis in vitro and in vivo. RESULTS: Compound 17 exhibited not only direct cytotoxicity to cancer cells but also downregulated immune checkpoints (PD-L1 and IDO) expression in tumors via the inhibition of STAT1 pathway and degradation of oncogene proteins (Src, AKT, Rb, and FAK), leading to in vivo tumor growth inhibition. These multiple effects enabled the effector T cells to largely infiltrate into the tumor region and release granzyme B to kill cancer cells. In addition, compound 17 also decreased TGF-ß secretion from normal cells, resulting in the systemic reduction of immunosuppressive regulatory T cells. Delightfully, a cocktail treatment of compound 17 and anti-PD-1 antibodies demonstrated synergistic efficacy to eliminate solid tumors with 83.9% of tumor growth inhibition. CONCLUSION: In summary, the impressive activity profile of compound 17, as an effective anticancer agent and a potential immunosensitizer, forecasts the application of HDAC6/HSP90 dual inhibitory strategy to overcome the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment.

Beyond the vaccines: a glance at the small molecule and peptide-based anti-COVID19 arsenal.

Unprecedented efforts of the researchers have been witnessed in the recent past towards the development of vaccine platforms for the control of the COVID-19 pandemic. Albeit, vaccination stands as a practical strategy to prevent SARS-CoV-2 infection, supplementing the anti-COVID19 arsenal with therapeutic options such as small molecules/peptides and antibodies is being conceived as a prudent strategy to tackle the emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants. Noteworthy to mention that collective efforts from numerous teams have led to the generation of a voluminous library composed of chemically and mechanistically diverse small molecules as anti-COVID19 scaffolds. This review article presents an overview of medicinal chemistry campaigns and drug repurposing programs that culminated in the identification of a plethora of small molecule-based anti-COVID19 drugs mediating their antiviral effects through inhibition of proteases, S protein, RdRp, ACE2, TMPRSS2, cathepsin and other targets. In light of the evidence ascertaining the potential of small molecule drugs to approach conserved proteins required for the viral replication of all coronaviruses, accelerated FDA approvals are anticipated for small molecules for the treatment of COVID19 shortly. Though the recent attempts invested in this direction in pursuit of enrichment of the anti-COVID-19 armoury (chemical tools) are praiseworthy, some strategies need to be implemented to extract conclusive benefits of the recently reported small molecule viz. (i) detailed preclinical investigation of the generated anti-COVID19 scaffolds (ii) in-vitro profiling of the inhibitors against the emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants (iii) development of assays enabling rapid screening of the libraries of anti-COVID19 scaffold (iv) leveraging the applications of machine learning based predictive models to expedite the anti-COVID19 drug discovery campaign (v) design of antibody-drug conjugates.

Protective effect of Grewia asiatica leaves extract in animal models of epilepsy and anxiety.

Grewia asiatica Linn. is a well-known plant for its nutritional and therapeutic attributes. It has been mentioned in ancient Indian literature as Rasayana due to its stimulant and tonic effects. Thus, present investigation was carried out to evaluate the antiepileptic and anxiolytic action of G. asiatica Linn. leaves using animal models. Methanol extract at dose levels of 100 and 200 mg/kg was capable of providing protection against both pentylenetetrazole and maximal electroshock induced seizures in mice. Extract also showed significant anxiolytic activity in elevated plus maze, light/dark box and mirror chamber mice models at same dose levels. Results of this study indicated that the methanol extract of leaves of G. asiatica plant possess significant antiepileptic and anxiolytic effect.

Glioblastoma: Current Status, Emerging Targets, and Recent Advances.

Glioblastoma (GBM) is a highly malignant brain tumor characterized by a heterogeneous population of genetically unstable and highly infiltrative cells that are resistant to chemotherapy. Although substantial efforts have been invested in the field of anti-GBM drug discovery in the past decade, success has primarily been confined to the preclinical level, and clinical studies have often been hampered due to efficacy-, selectivity-, or physicochemical property-related issues. Thus, expansion of the list of molecular targets coupled with a pragmatic design of new small-molecule inhibitors with central nervous system (CNS)-penetrating ability is required to steer the wheels of anti-GBM drug discovery endeavors. This Perspective presents various aspects of drug discovery (challenges in GBM drug discovery and delivery, therapeutic targets, and agents under clinical investigation). The comprehensively covered sections include the recent medicinal chemistry campaigns embarked upon to validate the potential of numerous enzymes/proteins/receptors as therapeutic targets in GBM.

Accommodation of ring C expanded deoxyvasicinone in the HDAC inhibitory pharmacophore culminates into a tractable anti-lung cancer agent and pH-responsive nanocarrier.

A fragment recruitment process was conducted to pinpoint a suitable fragment for installation in the HDAC inhibitory template to furnish agents endowed with the potential to treat lung cancer. Resultantly, Ring C expanded deoxyvasicinone was selected as an appropriate surface recognition part that was accommodated in the HDAC three-component model. Delightfully, fused quinazolinone 6 demonstrating a magnificent anticancer profile against KRAS and EGFR mutant lung cancer cell lines (IC50 = 0.80-0.96 µM) was identified. Results of the mechanistic studies confirmed that the cell growth inhibitory effects of compound 6 stems for HDAC6 (IC50 = 12.9 nM), HDAC1 (IC50 = 49.9 nM) and HDAC3 inhibition (IC50 = 68.5 nM), respectively. Compound 6 also suppressed the colony formation ability of A549 cells, induced apoptosis, and increased autophagic flux. Key interactions of HDAC inhibitor 6 within the active site of HDAC isoforms were figured out through molecular modeling studies. Furthermore, a pH-responsive nanocarrier (Hyaluronic acid - fused quinazolinone 6 nanoparticles) was designed and assessed using a dialysis bag approach under both normal and acidic circumstances that confirmed the pH-sensitive nature of NPs. Delightfully, the nanoparticles demonstrated selective cell viability reduction potential towards the lung cancer cell lines (A549 lung cancer cell lines) and were found to be largely devoid of cell growth inhibitory effects under normal settings (L929, mouse fibroblast cells).

Switch Pocket Kinase: An Emerging Therapeutic Target for the Design of Anticancer Agents.

Protein kinases are amongst the most focused enzymes in the current century to design, synthesize and formulate drugs that ought to be effective in the treatment of various disordered and diseased states involving either overexpression or deficiency situations. The ATP pocket on the kinases is the active binding site for most of the kinase inhibitors. However, the kinase mutations prevent the binding of kinase inhibitors to the ATP pocket. The enzyme becomes inactive even in the mutated state when the switch pocket site on the enzyme is occupied by switch pocket inhibitors. This review comprises detailed information regarding various classical protein kinases and switch pocket kinase inhibitors with their mechanism of action so that new molecules can be designed to encounter mutations in the kinase enzyme.

The Role of Epigenetic Mechanisms in Autoimmune, Neurodegenerative, Cardiovascular, and Imprinting Disorders.

Epigenetic mutations like aberrant DNA methylation, histone modifications, or RNA silencing are found in a number of human diseases. This review article discusses the epigenetic mechanisms involved in neurodegenerative disorders, cardiovascular disorders, auto-immune disorders and genomic imprinting disorders. In addition, emerging epigenetic therapeutic strategies for the treatment of such disorders are presented. Medicinal chemistry campaigns highlighting the efforts of the chemists invested towards the rational design of small molecule inhibitors have also been included. Pleasingly, several classes of epigenetic inhibitors, DNMT, HDAC, BET, HAT, and HMT inhibitors, along with RNA based therapies, have exhibited the potential to emerge as therapeutics in the longer run. It is quite hopeful that epigenetic modulator-based therapies will advance to clinical stage investigations by leaps and bounds.

Installation of Pargyline, a LSD1 Inhibitor, in the HDAC Inhibitory Template Culminated in the Identification of a Tractable Antiprostate Cancer Agent.

Pragmatic insertion of pargyline, a LSD1 inhibitor, as a surface recognition part in the HDAC inhibitory pharmacophore was planned in pursuit of furnishing potent antiprostate cancer agents. Resultantly, compound 14 elicited magnificent cell growth inhibitory effects against the PC-3 and DU-145 cell lines and led to remarkable suppression of tumor growth in human prostate PC-3 and DU-145 xenograft nude mouse models. The outcome of the enzymatic assays ascertained that the substantial antiproliferative effects of compound 14 were mediated through HDAC6 isoform inhibition as well as selective MAO-A and LSD1 inhibition. Moreover, the signatory feature of LSD1 inhibition by 14 in the context of H3K4ME2 accumulation was clearly evident from the results of western blot analysis. Gratifyingly, hydroxamic acid 14 demonstrates good human hepatocytic stability and good oral bioavailability in rats and exhibits enough promise to emerge as a therapeutic for the treatment of prostate cancer in the near future.

The HDAC/HSP90 Inhibitor G570 Attenuated Blue Light-Induced Cell Migration in RPE Cells and Neovascularization in Mice through Decreased VEGF Production.

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) occurs due to an abnormality of retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells that leads to gradual degeneration of the macula. Currently, AMD drug pipelines are endowed with limited options, and anti-VEGF agents stand as the dominantly employed therapy. Despite the proven efficacy of such agents, the evidenced side effects associated with their use underscore the need to elucidate other mechanisms involved and identify additional molecular targets for the sake of therapy improvement. The previous literature provided us with a solid rationale to preliminarily explore the potential of selective HDAC6 and HSP90 inhibitors to treat wet AMD. Rather than furnishing single-target agents (either HDAC6 or HSP90 inhibitor), this study recruited scaffolds endowed with the ability to concomitantly modulate both targets (HDAC6 and HSP90) for exploration. This plan was anticipated to accomplish the important goal of extracting amplified benefits via dual inhibition (HDAC6/HSP90) in wet AMD. As a result, G570 (indoline-based hydroxamate), a dual selective HDAC6-HSP90 inhibitor exerting its effects at micromolar concentrations, was pinpointed in the present endeavor to attenuate blue light-induced cell migration and retinal neovascularization by inhibiting VEGF production. In addition to the identification of a potential chemical tool (G570), the outcome of this study validates the candidate HDAC6-HSP90 as a compelling target for the development of futuristic therapeutics for wet AMD.

Recent developments in epigenetic cancer therapeutics: clinical advancement and emerging trends.

Epigenetic drug discovery field has evidenced significant advancement in the recent times. A plethora of small molecule inhibitors have progressed to clinical stage investigations and are being explored exhaustively to ascertain conclusive benefits in diverse malignancies. Literature precedents indicates that substantial amount of efforts were directed towards the use of epigenetic tools in monotherapy as well as in combination regimens at the clinical level, however, the preclinical/preliminary explorations were inclined towards the identification of prudent approaches that can leverage the anticancer potential of small molecule epigenetic inhibitors as single agents only. This review article presents an update of FDA approved epigenetic drugs along with the epigenetic inhibitors undergoing clinical stage investigations in different cancer types. A detailed discussion of the pragmatic strategies that are expected to steer the progress of the epigenetic therapy through the implementation of emerging approaches such as PROTACS and CRISPR/Cas9 along with logical ways for scaffold fabrication to selectively approach the enzyme isoforms in pursuit of garnering amplified antitumor effects has been covered. In addition, the compilation also presents the rational strategies for the construction of multi-targeting scaffold assemblages employing previously identified pharmacophores as potential alternatives to the combination therapy.

A novel histone deacetylase inhibitor MPT0L184 dysregulates cell-cycle checkpoints and initiates unscheduled mitotic signaling.

Aberrant alteration of epigenetic information disturbs chromatin structure and gene function, thereby facilitating cancer development. Several drugs targeting histone deacetylases (HDACs), a group of epigenetic enzymes, have been approved for treating hematologic malignancies in the clinic. However, patients who suffer from solid tumors often respond poorly to these drugs. In this study, we report a selective entinostat derivative, MPT0L184, with potent cancer-killing activity in both cell-based and mouse xenograft models. A time-course analysis of cell-cycle progression revealed that MPT0L184 treatment elicited an early onset of mitosis but prevented the division of cells with duplicated chromosomes. We show that MPT0L184 possessed potent inhibitory activity toward HDAC1 and 2, and its HDAC-inhibitory activity was required for initiating premature mitotic signaling. HDAC inhibition by MPT0L184 reduced WEE1 expression at the transcription level. In addition, MPT0L184 treatment also downregulated ATR-mediated CHK1 phosphorylation independent of HDAC inhibition. Furthermore, gastric cancer cells resistant to HDAC inhibitors were vulnerable to MPT0L184. Taken together, our study discovers MPT0L184 as a novel HDAC inhibitor that can trigger premature mitosis and potentially counteract drug resistance of cancers.