Cholera toxin, E. coli heat-labile toxin, and non-toxic derivatives induce dendritic cell migration into the follicle-associated epithelium of Peyer's patches.

The follicle-associated epithelium (FAE) of Peyer's patches (PPs) transports antigens and microorganisms into mucosal lymphoid tissues where they are captured by subepithelial dendritic cells (DCs). Feeding of cholera toxin (CT) induced migration of subepithelial DCs to interfollicular T-cell areas within 24 h. This study investigated short-term effects of CT, Escherichia coli heat-labile toxin, and non-toxic derivatives on DC migration. CT or CTB injected into ligated intestinal loops induced significant increase in CD11c+ DCs within the FAE within 90 min. In mice fed CT intragastrically, DC numbers in the FAE increased by 1 h, were maximal by 2 h, declined between 8 and 12 h, and were reversed by 24 h. Feeding of native LT, recombinant CTB, dibutyryl cyclic AMP, and to a lesser extent mutated CT(E29H) or mutated LT(R192G) had the same effect. Thus, both A and B subunits of enterotoxins, presumably acting through distinct signaling pathways, may promote capture of incoming antigens and pathogens by PP DCs.

A newborn mouse model for the study of intestinal pathogenesis of shigellosis.

Shigella infection is characterized by the induction of acute inflammation, which is responsible for the massive tissue destruction of the intestinal mucosa. A murine model would be a valuable tool for gaining a better understanding of the physiopathology of shigellosis and the host immune response to Shigella infection, but adult mice do not develop disease upon oral inoculation. We therefore attempted to develop a model of infection in newborn mice. Four-day-old mice inoculated with 50 microl of 5 x 10(9) invasive wild-type Shigella flexneri 5a were susceptible to bacterial infection, but mice inoculated with the non-invasive strain BS176 were not. Histologically, 4-day-old mice infected with the invasive strain presented intestinal lesions and inflammation similar to those described in patients with shigellosis. Moreover, cytokine and chemokine responses consistent with inflammation were observed. Lower bacterial inocula induced less severe intestinal damage. In contrast, 5-day-old mice inoculated with either the invasive or the non-invasive strain were not infected. We have thus established a mouse model that is suitable for the study of the pathogenesis of intestinal Shigella infection.

Collaboration of epithelial cells with organized mucosal lymphoid tissues.

Immune surveillance of mucosal surfaces requires the delivery of intact macromolecules and microorganisms across epithelial barriers to organized mucosal lymphoid tissues. Transport, processing and presentation of foreign antigens, as well as local induction and clonal expansion of antigen-specific effector lymphocytes, involves a close collaboration between organized lymphoid tissues and the specialized follicle-associated epithelium. M cells in the follicle-associated epithelium transport foreign macromolecules and microorganisms to antigen-presenting cells within and under the epithelial barrier. Determination of the earliest cellular interactions that occur in and under the follicle-associated epithelium could greatly facilitate the design of effective mucosal vaccines in the future.

Role of immunoglobulin A in protection against reovirus entry into Murine Peyer's patches.

Reovirus type 1 Lang (T1L) infects the mouse intestinal mucosa by adhering specifically to epithelial M cells and exploiting M-cell transport to enter the Peyer's patches. Oral inoculation of adult mice has been shown to elicit cellular and humoral immune responses that clear the infection within 10 days. This study was designed to determine whether adult mice that have cleared a primary infection are protected against viral entry upon oral rechallenge and, if so, whether antireovirus secretory immunoglobulin A (S-IgA) is a necessary component of protection. Adult BALB/c mice that were orally inoculated on day 0 with reovirus T1L produced antiviral S-IgA in feces and IgG in serum directed primarily against the reovirus sigma1 attachment protein. Eight hours after oral reovirus challenge on day 21, the Peyer's patches of previously exposed mice contained no detectable virus whereas Peyer's patches of naive controls contained up to 2,300 PFU of reovirus/mg of tissue. Orally inoculated IgA knockout (IgA(-/-)) mice cleared the initial infection as effectively as wild-type mice and produced higher levels of reovirus-specific serum IgG and secretory IgM than C57BL/6 wild-type mice. When IgA(-/-) mice were rechallenged on day 21, however, their Peyer's patches became infected. These results indicate that intestinal S-IgA is an essential component of immune protection against reovirus entry into Peyer's patch mucosa.

Early immunologic events in mucosal and systemic lymphoid tissues after intrarectal inoculation with simian immunodeficiency virus.

The pathogenesis of human immunodeficiency virus transmission via the rectal route remains poorly understood. By use of the simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)-rhesus macaque model and intrarectal inoculation with pathogenic SIVmac251, a significant increase was found in the percentage of CD11b(+) monocyte lineage cells expressing HLA-DR and/or B7-2 in local and peripheral immune inductive sites, but not in mucosal effector sites, as early as 7 days after inoculation and up to 50 days after inoculation. Moreover, at 21 and 50 days after inoculation, not only the gut but also the lung mucosa were depleted of CD4(+) T cells, which suggests that early loss of CD4(+) T cells may be a common feature of mucosal effector sites. These data suggest that, after intrarectal inoculation with SIV, early activation occurs within the monocyte lineage cell population at immunologic inductive sites, which is followed by a loss of CD4(+) T cells at local and distant mucosal effector sites.

Immunization of mice with recombinant gp41 in a systemic prime/mucosal boost protocol induces HIV-1-specific serum IgG and secretory IgA antibodies.

We tested the immunogenicity in mice of a recombinant fusion protein (gp41HA) consisting of the ectodomain of the HIV-1(IIIB) envelope glycoprotein gp41 fused to a fragment of the influenza virus HA2 hemagglutinin protein. An intraperitoneal prime followed by intranasal or intragastric boosts with gp41HA induced high concentrations of serum IgG antibodies and fecal IgA antibodies that reacted with gp41 in HIV-1(IIIB) viral lysate and were cross-reactive with gp41 in HIV-1(MN) lysate. By indirect immunofluorescence, serum IgG and fecal IgA from immunized mice were also shown to recognize gp41 in acetone-fixed human peripheral blood mononuclear cells infected with either syncytium-inducing (SI) or non-syncytium-inducing (NSI) North American HIV-1 field isolates, but not uninfected cells. Thus, this recombinant antigen may be useful in prime/boost immunization protocols designed to induce systemic and mucosal antibodies that recognize multiple primary HIV-1 isolates.

Effective induction of simian immunodeficiency virus-specific systemic and mucosal immune responses in primates by vaccination with proviral DNA producing intact but noninfectious virions.

We report a pilot evaluation of a DNA vaccine producing genetically inactivated simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) particles in primates, with a focus on eliciting mucosal immunity. Our results demonstrate that DNA vaccines can be used to stimulate strong virus-specific mucosal immune responses in primates. The levels of immunoglobulin A (IgA) detected in rectal secretions of macaques that received the DNA vaccine intradermally and at the rectal mucosa were the most striking of all measured immune responses and were higher than usually achieved through natural infection. However, cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses were generally low and sporadically present in different animals. Upon rectal challenge with cloned SIVmac239, resistance to infection was observed, but some animals with high SIV-specific IgA levels in rectal secretions became infected. Our results suggest that high levels of IgA alone are not sufficient to prevent the establishment of chronic infection, although mucosal IgA responses may have a role in reducing the infectivity of the initial viral inoculum.

Modified wick method using Weck-Cel sponges for collection of human rectal secretions and analysis of mucosal HIV antibody.

Weck-Cel sponges were examined for suitability as an absorbent material for nontraumatic collection of rectal secretions in humans. Sponges were tested in vitro and determined by quantitative enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to be capable of releasing 100% of absorbed albumin and all immunoglobulin subtypes after treatment with detergent-supplemented buffer. Protein composition in rectal secretions collected from normal women with dry sponges (DS) or with sponges previously softened by moistening with saline (MS) was subsequently compared. DS secretions showed evidence of contamination with blood and interstitial fluid-derived albumin, immunoglobulin G (IgG), and monomeric IgA. MS secretions appeared to represent local mucosal secretions more accurately because they contained negligible blood, a greater percentage of secretory IgA within the total IgA, and both lower albumin/IgG ratios and more dramatic alterations in IgG subclass distribution compared with corresponding serum. Anti-HIV IgG, IgM, IgA, and antibodies with secretory component could be demonstrated by ELISA in rectal secretions collected with moist sponges from 8 of 8, 1 of 8, 5 of 8, and 3 of 8 HIV-infected women, respectively. The data show that Weck-Cel sponges, if premoistened, can be used to collect rectal fluids nontraumatically and to obtain quantitative information about concentrations of immunoglobulins and specific antibodies on rectal mucosal surfaces.

Epithelial M cells: differentiation and function.

M cells are distinctive epithelial cells that occur only in the follicle-associated epithelia that overlie organized mucosa-associated lymphoid tissues. They are structurally and functionally specialized for transepithelial transport, delivering foreign antigens and microorganisms to organized lymphoid tissues within the mucosae of the small and large intestines, tonsils and adenoids, and airways. M cell transport is a double-edged sword: Certain pathogens exploit the features of M cells that are intended to promote uptake for the purpose of immunological sampling. Eludication of the molecular architecture of M cell apical surfaces is important for understanding the strategies that pathogens use to exploit this pathway and for utilizing M cell transport for delivery of vaccines to the mucosal immune system. This article reviews the functional and biochemical features that distinguish M cells from other intestinal cell types. In addition it synthesizes the available information on development and differentiation of organized lymphoid tissues and the specialized epithelium associated with these immune inductive sites.

Differential effects of simian immunodeficiency virus infection on immune inductive and effector sites in the rectal mucosa of rhesus macaques.

The rectal mucosa, a region involved in human immunodeficiency virus/simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection and transmission, contains immune inductive sites, rectal lymphoid nodules (RLN), and effector sites, the lamina propria (LP). This study was designed to evaluate cell populations involved in rectal mucosal immune function in both RLN and LP, by immunocytochemical analysis of rectal mucosa from 11 SIV-infected (2 to 21 months postinfection) and five naive rhesus macaques. In the rectum, as previously observed in other intestinal regions, CD4(+) cells were dramatically reduced in the LP of SIV-infected macaques, but high numbers of CD4(+) cells remained in RLN indicating maintenance of T cell help in inductive sites. Cells expressing the mucosal homing receptor alpha4beta7 were dramatically decreased in the RLN and LP of most SIV-infected macaques. The RLN of both naive and SIV-infected macaques contained high numbers of CD68 + MHC-II+ macrophages and cells expressing the co-stimulatory molecules B7-2 and CD40, as well as IgM + MHCII+ and IgM + CD40+ B cells, indicating maintenance of antigen presentation capacity. The LP of all three macaques SIV-infected for 2 months contained many B7-2+ cells, suggesting increased activation of antigen-presenting cells. LP of SIV-infected rectal mucosa contained increased numbers of IgM+ cells, confirming previous observations in small intestine and colon. The data suggest that antigen-presentation capacity is maintained in inductive sites of SIV-infected rectal mucosa, but immune effector functions may be altered.

Accessibility of glycolipid and oligosaccharide epitopes on rabbit villus and follicle-associated epithelium.

The initial step in many mucosal infections is pathogen attachment to glycoconjugates on the apical surfaces of intestinal epithelial cells. We examined the ability of virus-sized (120-nm) and bacterium-sized (1-microm) particles to adhere to specific glycolipids and protein-linked oligosaccharides on the apical surfaces of rabbit Peyer's patch villus enterocytes, follicle-associated enterocytes, and M cells. Particles coated with the B subunit of cholera toxin, which binds the ubiquitous glycolipid GM1, were unable to adhere to enterocytes or M cells. This confirms that both the filamentous brush border glycocalyx on enterocytes and the thin glycoprotein coat on M cells can function as size-selective barriers. Oligosaccharides containing terminal beta(1,4)-linked galactose were accessible to soluble lectin Ricinus communis type I on all epithelial cells but were not accessible to lectin immobilized on beads. Oligosaccharides containing alpha(2, 3)-linked sialic acid were recognized on all epithelial cells by soluble Maackia amurensis lectin II (Mal II). Mal II coated 120-nm (but not 1-microm) particles adhered to follicle-associated enterocytes and M cells but not to villus enterocytes. The differences in receptor availability observed may explain in part the selective attachment of viruses and bacteria to specific cell types in the intestinal mucosa.

Molecular cloning and expression of a gene encoding Cryptosporidium parvum glycoproteins gp40 and gp15.

Cryptosporidium parvum is a significant cause of diarrheal disease worldwide. The specific molecules that mediate C. parvum-host cell interactions and the molecular mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of cryptosporidiosis are unknown. In this study we have shown that gp40, a mucin-like glycoprotein, is localized to the surface and apical region of invasive stages of the parasite and is shed from its surface. gp40-specific antibodies neutralize infection in vitro, and native gp40 binds specifically to host cells, implicating this glycoprotein in C. parvum attachment to and invasion of host cells. We have cloned and sequenced a gene designated Cpgp40/15 that encodes gp40 as well as gp15, an antigenically distinct, surface glycoprotein also implicated in C. parvum-host cell interactions. Analysis of the deduced amino acid sequence of the 981-bp Cpgp40/15 revealed the presence of an N-terminal signal peptide, a polyserine domain, multiple predicted O-glycosylation sites, a single potential N-glycosylation site, and a hydrophobic region at the C terminus, a finding consistent with what is required for the addition of a GPI anchor. There is a single copy of Cpgp40/15 in the C. parvum genome, and this gene does not contain introns. Our data indicate that the two Cpgp40/15-encoded proteins, gp40 and gp15, are products of proteolytic cleavage of a 49-kDa precursor protein which is expressed in intracellular stages of the parasite. The surface localization of gp40 and gp15 and their involvement in the host-parasite interaction suggest that either or both of these glycoproteins may serve as effective targets for specific preventive or therapeutic measures for cryptosporidiosis.

Immunization of mice with peptomers covalently coupled to aluminum oxide nanoparticles.

Subunit vaccines generally require adjuvants to elicit immune responses, but adjuvants may alter the conformation of critical epitopes and reduce vaccine efficacy. We therefore tested an immunization strategy in which antigen is covalently coupled to aluminum oxide nanoparticles using a method that favors preservation of the native conformation. The test antigen consisted of "peptomers" (head-to-tail-linked peptide homopolymers) derived from the 4th conserved region (C4) of HIV-1 gp120 which is believed to be in an alpha-helical conformation prior to binding to CD4. Immune responses in mice to peptomer-nanoparticle conjugates were compared to responses elicited by free C4 peptide and C4 peptomers, with and without the hydrophilic adjuvant muramyl dipeptide (MDP). Highest peptomer-specific serum antibody responses were induced by peptomer-particles without MDP. Serum antibodies induced by peptomer-particles also showed highest reactivity towards recombinant, glycosylated gp120 and HIV-1 infected T cells. The results suggest that this novel vaccine approach could be useful for induction of immune responses against conformation-sensitive viral antigens without the need for additional adjuvants.

The composition and function of M cell apical membranes: implications for microbial pathogenesis.

M cells, an epithelial cell phenotype that occurs only over organized mucosal lymphoid follicles, deliver samples of foreign material by transepithelial transport from the lumen to organized lymphoid tissues within the mucosa of the small and large intestines. The apical membranes of M cells in the intestine are designed to facilitate adherence and uptake of antigens and microorganisms, a prerequisite for immunological sampling. The molecular features of M cell apical surfaces that promote adherence and transport are crucial for understanding the strategies that pathogens use to exploit this pathway.

Interactions of viruses and microparticles with apical plasma membranes of M cells: implications for human immunodeficiency virus transmission.

In the rectal mucosa, specialized M cells of the lymphoid follicle-associated epithelium conduct vesicular transport of antigens from the mucosal surface into organized mucosal lymphoid tissues, where immune responses are induced. Bacteria and viruses may exploit this mechanism to initiate mucosal or systemic infection. Viral pathogens, including reovirus, poliovirus, and possibly human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), can enter the intestinal or rectal mucosa by adhering to apical membranes of M cells, but the membrane components involved in these interactions are unknown. Glycoprotein coats on the apical surfaces of epithelial cells act as diffusion barriers that limit access of particles and microorganisms to membrane glycolipids and to certain oligosaccharide epitopes of enterocytes but allow selective adherence to M cells. The accessibility of membrane glycolipids of M cells, along with their active endocytic activity, could promote entry of HIV into the rectal mucosa.

Mucosal vaccination strategies for women.

Women were immunized orally, rectally, or vaginally with a recombinant cholera toxin B-containing vaccine to determine which of these mucosal immunization routes generate the greatest levels of antibody in the female genital tract and rectum. ELISA was used to measure concentrations of cholera toxin B-specific IgA and IgG antibody in serum and secretions before and after three immunizations. Each immunization route similarly increased specific IgG in serum and specific IgA in saliva. Only the vaginal route increased IgA antibodies in genital tract secretions and could be shown to induce a local IgG response. However, vaginal immunization failed to produce antibody in the rectum. In a similar fashion, rectal immunization elicited highest concentrations of locally derived IgA and IgG antibody in the rectum but was ineffective for generating antibody in the genital tract. The data suggest that local immunization may induce the greatest immune responses in the female genital tract and rectum of humans.

Human intestinal M cells display the sialyl Lewis A antigen.

The biochemical features that distinguish human M cells from other intestinal epithelial cell types are important for understanding microbial pathogenesis and for targeting vaccines to the mucosal immune system. We applied a large panel of carbohydrate-specific monoclonal antibodies and lectins to Peyer's patch and cecum biopsy specimens from three normal individuals and a patient with inflammatory bowel disease. The results show that human M-cell glycosylation patterns are distinct from those of other species examined and that human M cells preferentially display the sialyl Lewis A antigen. This carbohydrate epitope is also present in a small subpopulation of enterocytes in the follicle-associated epithelium and in goblet cell mucins.

Mucin-related epitopes distinguish M cells and enterocytes in rabbit appendix and Peyer's patches.

The biochemical composition of the apical membranes of epithelial M cells overlying the gut-associated lymphoid tissues (GALT) is still largely unknown. We have prepared monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) directed against carbonate-washed plasma membranes from epithelial cells detached with EDTA from rabbit appendix, a tissue particularly rich in GALT. As determined by immunofluorescence microscopy, several MAbs specifically recognized either M cells or enterocyte-like cells of the domes from rabbit appendix, sacculus rotundus, and Peyer's patches. M cells were identified by their large ventral pocket containing lymphoid cells and by specific labeling with antivimentin. Among various characterized MAbs, MAb 104 recognized rabbit immunoglobulins and was used as an apical marker for M cells in the rabbit appendix, MAb 58 selectively stained an integral membrane glycoprotein of greater than 205 kDa located at the apex of M cells, and MAb 214 stained a smaller soluble glycoprotein associated with the apical surfaces from neighboring enterocytes. In addition, both MAbs 58 and 214 also labeled luminal mucus and secretory granules in goblet cells. The selective association of mucin-related molecules at the surfaces of either M cells or enterocyte-like cells of the follicle-associated epithelium suggests that specific carbohydrate antigens are differentially expressed by epithelial cells and could account for the differential binding properties of pathogens.