ABSTRACT
The Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L., 1758) is a temperate fish species native to the northern Atlantic Ocean. The distinctive pink-red flesh color (i.e., pigmentation) significantly affects the market price. Flesh paleness leads to customer dissatisfaction, a loss of competitiveness, a drop in product value and, consequently, severe economic losses. This work extends our knowledge on salmonid carotenoid dynamics to include the interaction between the gut microbiota and flesh color. A significant association between the flesh color and abundance of specific bacterial communities in the gut microbiota suggests that color may be affected either by seeding resilient beneficial bacteria or by inhibiting the negative effect of pathogenic bacteria. We sampled 96 fish, which covered all phenotypes of flesh color, including the average color and the evenness of color of different areas of the fillet, at both the distal intestine and the pyloric caeca of each individual, followed by 16S rRNA sequencing at the V3-V4 region. The microbiota profiles of these two gut regions were significantly different; however, there was a consistency in the microbiota, which correlated with the flesh color. Moreover, the pyloric caeca microbiota also showed high correlation with the evenness of the flesh color (beta diversity index, PERMANOVA, p = 0.002). The results from the pyloric caeca indicate that Carnobacterium, a group belonging to the lactic acid bacteria, is strongly related to the flesh color and the evenness of the color between the flesh areas.
ABSTRACT
In Tasmania (Australia), during the marine phase, it has been observed that flesh pigmentation significantly drops in summer, possibly due to high water temperatures (> 20 °C). Although this deleterious effect of summer temperatures has been ascertained, there is a lack of knowledge of the actual mechanisms behind the impaired uptake and/or loss of pigments in Atlantic salmon in a challenging environment. Since the microbial community in the fish intestine significantly changes in relation to the variations of water temperature, this study was conducted to assess how the gut microbiota profile also correlates with the flesh color during temperature fluctuation. We sampled 68 fish at three time points covering the end of summer to winter at a marine farm in Tasmania, Australia. Flesh color was examined in two ways: the average color throughout and the evenness of the color between different areas of the fillet. Using 16S rRNA sequencing of the v3-v4 region, we determined that water temperature corresponded to changes in the gut microbiome both with alpha diversity (Kruskal-Wallis tests P = 0.05) and beta diversity indices (PERMANOVA P = 0.001). Also, there was a significant correlation between the microbiota and the color of the fillet (PERMANOVA P = 0.016). There was a high abundance of Pseudoalteromonadaceae, Enterobacteriaceae, Microbacteriaceae, and Vibrionaceae in the pale individuals. Conversely, carotenoid-synthesizing bacteria families (Bacillaceae, Mycoplasmataceae, Pseudomonas, Phyllobacteriaceae, and Comamonadaceae) were found in higher abundance in individuals with darker flesh color.
