ABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: Viral load testing is considered the gold standard for monitoring HIV treatment; however, given its high cost, some patients cannot afford viral load testing if this testing is not subsidized. Since foreign aid for HIV/AIDS in Vietnam is rapidly decreasing, we sought to assess willingness to pay (WTP) for viral load and CD4 cell count tests among HIV-positive patients, and identified factors that might inform future co-payment schemes. METHODS: A multi-site cross-sectional survey was conducted with 1133 HIV-positive patients on antiretroviral therapy (ART) in Hanoi and Nam Dinh. Patients' health insurance coverage, quality of life, and history of illicit drug use were assessed. A contingent valuation approach was employed to measure patients' WTP for CD4 cell count and viral load testing. RESULTS: HIV-positive patients receiving ART at provincial sites reported more difficulty obtaining health insurance (HI) and had the overall the poorest quality of life. Most patients (90.9%) were willing to pay for CD4 cell count testing; here, the mean WTP was valued at US$8.2 (95%CI = 7.6-8.8 US$) per test. Most patients (87.3%) were also willing to pay for viral load testing; here, mean WTP was valued at US$18.6 (95%CI = 16.3-20.9 US$) per test. High income, high education level, and hospitalization were positively associated with WTP, while co-morbidity with psychiatric symptoms and trouble paying for health insurance were both negatively related to WTP. CONCLUSIONS: These findings raise concerns that HIV-positive patients in Vietnam might have low WTP for CD4 cell count and viral load testing. This means that without foreign financial subsidies, many of these patients would likely go without these important tests. Treating psychiatric co-morbidities, promoting healthcare services utilization, and removing barriers to accessing health insurance may increase WTP for monitoring of HIV/AIDS treatment among HIV+-positive Vietnamese patients.
Subject(s)
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome/economics , HIV Infections/economics , Viral Load/economics , Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome/drug therapy , Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome/virology , Adolescent , Adult , Anti-Retroviral Agents/therapeutic use , CD4 Lymphocyte Count/economics , Cross-Sectional Studies , Female , Financing, Personal , HIV/metabolism , HIV Infections/drug therapy , HIV Infections/virology , Humans , Income , Insurance, Health , Male , Mental Health , Middle Aged , Patient Acceptance of Health Care , Quality of Life , Social Class , Surveys and Questionnaires , Vietnam , Young AdultABSTRACT
Lactate detection by an in situ sensor is of great need in clinical medicine, food processing, and athletic performance monitoring. In this paper, a flexible, easy to fabricate, and low-cost biosensor base on lactate oxidase is presented. The fabrication processes, including metal deposition, sol-gel IrOx deposition, and drop-dry enzyme loading method, are described in detail. The loaded enzyme was examined by scanning electron microscopy. Cyclic voltammetry was used to characterize the sensors. Durability, sensibility, and selectivity of the biosensors were examined. The comparison for different electrode sizes and different sensing film materials was conducted. The sensor could last for four weeks with an average surface area normalized sensitivity of 950 nA/(cm² mM) and 9250 nA/(cm² mM) for Au-based electrodes, and IrOx-modified electrodes respectively, both with an electrode size of 100 × 50 µm. The self-referencing method to record noises simultaneously with the working electrode greatly improved sensor sensitivity and selectivity. The sensor showed little response to interference chemicals, such as glutamate and dopamine.
