An ensemble of cadherin-catenin-vinculin complex employs vinculin as the major F-actin binding mode.

The cell-cell adhesion cadherin-catenin complexes recruit vinculin to the adherens junction (AJ) to modulate the mechanical couplings between neighboring cells. However, it is unclear how vinculin influences the AJ structure and function. Here, we identified two patches of salt bridges that lock vinculin in the head-tail autoinhibited conformation and reconstituted the full-length vinculin activation mimetics bound to the cadherin-catenin complex. The cadherin-catenin-vinculin complex contains multiple disordered linkers and is highly dynamic, which poses a challenge for structural studies. We determined the ensemble conformation of this complex using small-angle x-ray and selective deuteration/contrast variation small-angle neutron scattering. In the complex, both α-catenin and vinculin adopt an ensemble of flexible conformations, but vinculin has fully open conformations with the vinculin head and actin-binding tail domains well separated from each other. F-actin binding experiments show that the cadherin-catenin-vinculin complex binds and bundles F-actin. However, when the vinculin actin-binding domain is removed from the complex, only a minor fraction of the complex binds to F-actin. The results show that the dynamic cadherin-catenin-vinculin complex employs vinculin as the primary F-actin binding mode to strengthen AJ-cytoskeleton interactions.

Activated nanoscale actin-binding domain motion in the catenin-cadherin complex revealed by neutron spin echo spectroscopy.

As the core component of the adherens junction in cell-cell adhesion, the cadherin-catenin complex transduces mechanical tension between neighboring cells. Structural studies have shown that the cadherin-catenin complex exists as an ensemble of flexible conformations, with the actin-binding domain (ABD) of α-catenin adopting a variety of configurations. Here, we have determined the nanoscale protein domain dynamics of the cadherin-catenin complex using neutron spin echo spectroscopy (NSE), selective deuteration, and theoretical physics analyses. NSE reveals that, in the cadherin-catenin complex, the motion of the entire ABD becomes activated on nanosecond to submicrosecond timescales. By contrast, in the α-catenin homodimer, only the smaller disordered C-terminal tail of ABD is moving. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations also show increased mobility of ABD in the cadherin-catenin complex, compared to the α-catenin homodimer. Biased MD simulations further reveal that the applied external forces promote the transition of ABD in the cadherin-catenin complex from an ensemble of diverse conformational states to specific states that resemble the actin-bound structure. The activated motion and an ensemble of flexible configurations of the mechanosensory ABD suggest the formation of an entropic trap in the cadherin-catenin complex, serving as negative allosteric regulation that impedes the complex from binding to actin under zero force. Mechanical tension facilitates the reduction in dynamics and narrows the conformational ensemble of ABD to specific configurations that are well suited to bind F-actin. Our results provide a protein dynamics and entropic explanation for the observed force-sensitive binding behavior of a mechanosensitive protein complex.

An ensemble of flexible conformations underlies mechanotransduction by the cadherin-catenin adhesion complex.

The cadherin-catenin adhesion complex is the central component of the cell-cell adhesion adherens junctions that transmit mechanical stress from cell to cell. We have determined the nanoscale structure of the adherens junction complex formed by the α-catenin•ß-catenin•epithelial cadherin cytoplasmic domain (ABE) using negative stain electron microscopy, small-angle X-ray scattering, and selective deuteration/small-angle neutron scattering. The ABE complex is highly pliable and displays a wide spectrum of flexible structures that are facilitated by protein-domain motions in α- and ß-catenin. Moreover, the 107-residue intrinsically disordered N-terminal segment of ß-catenin forms a flexible "tongue" that is inserted into α-catenin and participates in the assembly of the ABE complex. The unanticipated ensemble of flexible conformations of the ABE complex suggests a dynamic mechanism for sensitivity and reversibility when transducing mechanical signals, in addition to the catch/slip bond behavior displayed by the ABE complex under mechanical tension. Our results provide mechanistic insight into the structural dynamics for the cadherin-catenin adhesion complex in mechanotransduction.

A novel mechanism for the anticancer activity of aspirin and salicylates.

Epidemiological studies indicate that long­term aspirin usage reduces the incidence of colorectal cancer (CRC) and may protect against other non­CRC associated adenocarcinomas, including oesophageal cancer. A number of hypotheses have been proposed with respect to the molecular action of aspirin and other non­steroidal anti­inflammatory drugs in cancer development. The mechanism by which aspirin exhibits toxicity to CRC has been previously investigated by synthesising novel analogues and derivatives of aspirin in an effort to identify functionally significant moieties. Herein, an early effect of aspirin and aspirin­like analogues against the SW480 CRC cell line was investigated, with a particular focus on critical molecules in the epidermal growth factor (EGF) pathway. The present authors proposed that aspirin, diaspirin and analogues, and diflunisal (a salicylic acid derivative) may rapidly perturb EGF and EGF receptor (EGFR) internalisation. Upon longer incubations, the diaspirins and thioaspirins may inhibit EGFR phosphorylation at Tyr1045 and Tyr1173. It was additionally demonstrated, using a qualitative approach, that EGF internalisation in the SW480 cell line may be directed to endosomes by fumaryldiaspirin using early endosome antigen 1 as an early endosomal marker and that EGF internalisation may also be perturbed in oesophageal cell lines, suggestive of an effect not only restricted to CRC cells. Taken together and in light of our previous findings that the aspirin­like analogues can affect cyclin D1 expression and nuclear factor­κB localisation, it was hypothesized that aspirin and aspirin analogues significantly and swiftly perturb the EGFR axis and that the protective activity of aspirin may in part be explained by perturbed EGFR internalisation and activation. These findings may also have implications in understanding the inhibitory effect of aspirin and salicylates on wound healing, given the critical role of EGF in the response to tissue trauma.

The Cytotoxicity and Synergistic Potential of Aspirin and Aspirin Analogues Towards Oesophageal and Colorectal Cancer.

BACKGROUND: Oesophageal cancer (OC) is a deadly cancer because of its aggressive nature with survival rates that have barely improved in decades. Epidemiologic studies have shown that low-dose daily intake of aspirin can decrease the incidence of OC. METHODS: The toxicity of aspirin and aspirin derivatives to OC and a CRC cell line were investigated in the presence and absence of platins. RESULTS: The data in this study show the effects of a number of aspirin analogues and aspirin on OC cell lines that originally presented as squamous cell carcinoma (SSC) and adenocarcinoma (ADC). The aspirin analogues fumaryldiaspirin (PN517) and the benzoylsalicylates (PN524, PN528 and PN529), were observed to be more toxic against the OC cell lines than aspirin. Both quantitative and qualitative apoptosis experiments reveal that these compounds largely induce apoptosis, although some necrosis was evident with PN528 and PN529. Failure to recover following the treatment with these analogues emphasized that these drugs are largely cytotoxic in nature. The OE21 (SSC) and OE33 (ADC) cell lines were more sensitive to the aspirin analogues compared to the Flo-1 cell line (ADC). A non-cancerous oesophageal primary cells NOK2101, was used to determine the specificity of the aspirin analogues and cytotoxicity assays revealed that analogues PN528 and PN529 were selectively toxic to cancer cell lines, whereas PN508, PN517 and PN524 also induced cell death in NOK2101. In combination index testing synergistic interactions of the most promising compounds, including aspirin, with cisplatin, oxaliplatin and carboplatin against the OE33 cell line and the SW480 colorectal cancer (CRC) cell line were investigated. Compounds PN517 and PN524, and to a lesser extent PN528, synergised with cisplatin against OE33 cells. Cisplatin and oxaliplatin synergised with aspirin and PN517 when tested against the SW480 cell line. CONCLUSION: These findings indicate the potential and limitations of aspirin and aspirin analogues as chemotherapeutic agents against OC and CRC when combined with platins.

α-Catenin Structure and Nanoscale Dynamics in Solution and in Complex with F-Actin.

As a core component of the adherens junction, α-catenin stabilizes the cadherin/catenin complexes to the actin cytoskeleton for the mechanical coupling of cell-cell adhesion. α-catenin also modulates actin dynamics, cell polarity, and cell-migration functions that are independent of the adherens junction. We have determined the solution structures of the α-catenin monomer and dimer using in-line size-exclusion chromatography small-angle X-ray scattering, as well as the structure of α-catenin dimer in complex to F-actin filament using selective deuteration and contrast-matching small angle neutron scattering. We further present the first observation, to our knowledge, of the nanoscale dynamics of α-catenin by neutron spin-echo spectroscopy, which explicitly reveals the mobile regions of α-catenin that are crucial for binding to F-actin. In solution, the α-catenin monomer is more expanded than either protomer shown in the crystal structure dimer, with the vinculin-binding M fragment and the actin-binding domain being able to adopt different configurations. The α-catenin dimer in solution is also significantly more expanded than the dimer crystal structure, with fewer interdomain and intersubunit contacts than the crystal structure. When in complex to F-actin, the α-catenin dimer has an even more open and extended conformation than in solution, with the actin-binding domain further separated from the main body of the dimer. The α-catenin-assembled F-actin bundle develops into an ordered filament packing arrangement at increasing α-catenin/F-actin molar ratios. Together, the structural and dynamic studies reveal that α-catenin possesses dynamic molecular conformations that prime this protein to function as a mechanosensor protein.

Interleukin 21 inhibits cancer-mediated FOXP3 induction in naïve human CD4 T cells.

IL-21 is known to promote anti-tumour immunity due to its ability to promote T cell responses and counteract Treg-mediated suppression. It has also been shown to limit Treg frequencies during tumour-antigen stimulations. However, whether this represents inhibition of FOXP3 induction in naïve CD4 T cells or curtailed expansion of natural Treg remains unclear. Moreover, whether this effect is maintained in an environment of tumour-derived immunosuppressive factors is not known. Here, we show that in the context of a number of cancers, naïve CD45RA+ CD4 T cells are induced to express high levels of FOXP3, and that FOXP3 expression correlates with inhibition of T cell proliferation. FOXP3 expression was most potently induced by tumours secreting higher levels of total and active TGFß1 and this induction could be potently counteracted with IL-21, restoring T cell proliferation. We conclude that Treg induction in naïve T cells is a common phenomenon amongst a number of different cancers and that the ability of IL-21 to counteract this effect is further evidence of its promise in cancer therapy.

Identification of aspirin analogues that repress NF-κB signalling and demonstrate anti-proliferative activity towards colorectal cancer in vitro and in vivo.

Substantial evidence indicates that aspirin and related non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) have potential as chemopreventative/therapeutic agents. However, these agents cannot be universally recommended for prevention purposes due to their potential side-effect profiles. Here, we compared the growth inhibitory and mechanistic activity of aspirin to two novel analogues, diaspirin (DiA) and fumaryl diaspirin (F-DiA). We found that the aspirin analogues inhibited cell proliferation and induced apoptosis of colorectal cancer cells at significantly lower doses than aspirin. Similar to aspirin, we found that an early response to the analogues was a reduction in levels of cyclin D1 and stimulation of the NF-κB pathway. This stimulation was associated with a significant reduction in basal levels of NF-κB transcriptional activity, in keeping with previous data for aspirin. However, in contrast to aspirin, DiA and F-DiA activity was not associated with nucleolar accumulation of RelA. For all assays, F-DiA had a more rapid and significant effect than DiA, identifying this agent as particularly active against colorectal cancer. Using a syngeneic colorectal tumour model in mice, we found that, while both agents significantly inhibited tumour growth in vivo, this effect was particularly pronounced for F-DiA. These data identify two compounds that are active against colorectal cancer in vitro and in vivo. They also identify a potential mechanism of action of these agents and shed light on the chemical structures that may be important for the antitumour effects of aspirin.

Activity of aspirin analogues and vanillin in a human colorectal cancer cell line.

Colorectal cancer is the third most common cancer and is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Epidemiological and animal studies indicate that regular acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) intake is associated with a reduction in the incidence of colorectal cancer. Acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) has also been shown to inhibit colorectal cancer cell proliferation in vitro. The molecular basis for this specific cytotoxicity is an area of considerable debate. To investigate the toxicity of salicylates, the sensitivity of the DNA mismatch repair proficient SW480 human colorectal cancer cell line to four categories of compounds with varying degrees of structural similarity to acetylsalicylic acid was tested. These compounds were: i) salicylic acid analogues with substituents at the 5-position; ii) ASA analogues with extended chain lengths in the acyl group; iii) vanillin (4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzaldehyde; and iv) bis(2-carboxyphenyl) succinate (BCS) and structurally similar derivatives thereof. It was found that compounds with amino and acetamido substituents at the salicylate 5-position were less toxic than ASA itself. Modifications to the length of the hydrocarbon chain in the acyl groups of ASA analogues also marginally reduced toxicity. Vanillin exhibited relatively limited toxicity against the SW480 colorectal cancer cell line. Commercially available and in-house synthesised BCS (diaspirin) were notably more inhibitory to cell growth than ASA itself, yet retained substantial specificity against colorectal cancer cell lines vs. non-colorectal cancer cell lines. BCS and ASA were toxic to SW480 cells through initiation of necrotic and apoptotic pathways. Fumaroyldiaspirin and benzoylaspirin exhibited greater toxicity than ASA against the SW480 cell line. A novel method for synthesis of BCS, a compound that has erratic commercial availability, is described. We propose that the anti-inflammatory and anticancer capacity of BCS and the other analogues described herein is worthy of investigation.

Interactions of cell penetrating peptide Tat with model membranes: a biophysical study.

The protein transduction domain of the HIV-1 transactivator of transcription, Tat (Tat((48-60))), has been shown to transport P10, a cytotoxic peptide mimic of the cyclin dependent kinase inhibitor p21WAF1/CIP1, into the nucleus of cancerous cells and induce apoptosis. Here, monolayer studies were used to investigate the membrane interactions of Tat((48-60)), P10 and the construct Tat((48-60))P10. It was found that Tat((48-60)) showed no significant surface activity but that both P10 and Tat((48-60))P10, were highly surface active, inducing surface pressure changes of 9.7 and 8.9mNm(-1), respectively, with DMPS monolayers. The comparison of Tat((48-60))P10 and P10 surface interactions would be consistent with a hypothesis that the cargo attachment influences the capacity of the Tat-protein transduction domain to mediate transport across membranes either directly or via localisation of the construct at the membrane interface.

A sychnological cell penetrating peptide mimic of p21(WAF1/CIP1) is pro-apoptogenic.

Targeting chemotherapeutic agents directly to sites of DNA replication and repair within cancerous cells is problematic. This study attempts to address the issue of nuclear delivery of biologically active peptides with the potential to disrupt cancer cell growth. Herein, the protein transduction domain of the HIV-1 transactivator of transcription, Tat (Tat(48-60)), is used to deliver a cytotoxic peptide mimic of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor, p21(WAF1/CIP1) into the nucleus. This construct, which we designate as Tat(48-60)-P10, contains the PCNA interacting protein (PIP) box. We demonstrate the utility of Tat(48-60) for peptide delivery to the nucleus and show that Tat(48-60)-P10 induces apoptosis specific to the inclusion of the wild type PIP box containing sequence. Colocalization of Tat(48-60)-P10 with nuclear PCNA was observed by immunofluorescence analysis, supporting the hypothesis that cytotoxicity is potentially related to disruption of nuclear PCNA function. The U251 and U373 glioma cell lines exhibited particular sensitivity to the construct.

The identification of a novel alternatively spliced form of the MBD4 DNA glycosylase.

Methyl-CpG binding protein 4 (MBD4) is a mismatch-specific G:T and G:U DNA glycosylase. During an analysis of MBD4 expression in HeLa cells we noted the presence of an unexpectedly short reverse transcribed product. This cDNA lacked the region encoding the methyl-binding domain and exon 3 of MBD4 but retained the glycosylase domain. Sequence comparison indicates the existence of a previously unreported cryptic splice site in the MBD4 genomic sequence thus illuminating a mechanism whereby a glycosylase acquired a methyl-binding capacity, thus targeting potential mutagenic CpG sites. In vitro assays of this highly purified species, refolded in arginine rich conditions, confirmed that this unique, short version of MBD4 possessed uracil DNA glycosylase but not thymine DNA glycosylase activity. We conclude that the identification of a transcript encoding a short version of MBD4 indicates that MBD4 expression may be more complex than previously reported, and is worthy of further investigation.

Identification and survival of carriers of mutations in DNA mismatch-repair genes in colon cancer.

BACKGROUND: The identification of mutations in germ-line DNA mismatch-repair genes at the time of diagnosis of colorectal cancer is important in the management of the disease. METHODS: Without preselection and regardless of family history, we recruited 870 patients under the age of 55 years soon after they received a diagnosis of colorectal cancer. We studied these patients for germ-line mutations in the DNA mismatch-repair genes MLH1, MSH2, and MSH6 and developed a two-stage model by multivariate logistic regression for the prediction of the presence of mutations in these genes. Stage 1 of the model incorporated only clinical variables; stage 2 comprised analysis of the tumor by immunohistochemical staining and tests for microsatellite instability. The model was validated in an independent population of patients. We analyzed 2938 patient-years of follow-up to determine whether genotype influenced survival. RESULTS: There were 38 mutations among the 870 participants (4 percent): 15 mutations in MLH1, 16 in MSH2, and 7 in MSH6. Carrier frequencies in men (6 percent) and women (3 percent) differed significantly (P<0.04). The addition of immunohistochemical analysis in stage 2 of the model had a sensitivity of 62 percent and a positive predictive value of 80 percent. There were 35 mutations in the validation series of 155 patients (23 percent): 19 mutations in MLH1, 13 in MSH2, and 3 in MSH6. The performance of the model was robust among a wide range of cutoff probabilities and was superior to that of the Bethesda and Amsterdam criteria for hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer. Survival among carriers was not significantly different from that among noncarriers. CONCLUSIONS: We devised and validated a method of identifying patients with colorectal cancer who are carriers of mutations in DNA repair genes. Survival was similar among carriers and noncarriers.