Individual and contextual-level predictors of progression in the bystander intervention model.

The situational model of bystander behavior is a validated 5-step process for understanding intervention in bullying and sexual harassment, yet the individual-level and contextual-level factors that facilitate the progression from one step to the next are not well understood. The purpose of the current study was to examine whether individual characteristics (social-emotional skills, affective empathy, cognitive empathy, and personal attitudes toward bullying and sexual harassment) and contextual-level factors (school climate and perceived peer attitudes toward bullying and sexual harassment) explained the association between subsequent steps of the bystander intervention model. A sample of 788 high school students completed several validated measures of these constructs. Structural equation modeling analysis revealed that each step significantly and positively predicted the next step, and the addition of a direct path from accepting responsibility to helping improved model fit. The mediational model indicated that individual-level characteristics had significant direct effects on interpreting bullying and sexual harassment as problems, accepting responsibility, and helping, and indirect effects from noticing the bullying and sexual harassment to all subsequent steps except knowing. In contrast, contextual-level effects contributed to accepting responsibility in an inverse direction.

Emergency Preparedness Drills for Active and Mass Shootings in Schools.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: There is widespread use of emergency preparedness drills in public K-12 schools across the US, but considerable variability exists in the types of protocols used and how these practices are conducted. This review examines research into both "lockdown drills" and "active shooter drills" as it relates to their impact on participants across different outcomes and evaluations of their procedural integrity. RECENT FINDINGS: A number of studies on lockdown drills yielded largely consistent findings about their impacts, whereas findings related to the effects of active shooter drills are less uniform. The research also demonstrated that lockdown drills, though not active shooter drills, can help participants build skill mastery to be able to successfully deploy the procedure. Differences in how drills impact participants and whether they cultivate skill mastery are largely attributable to the type of drill being conducted. This review suggests that employing clearly defined drill procedures incorporating best practices, coupled with instructional training, can help schools prepare for emergencies without creating trauma for participants.

Joint trajectories of bullying victimization and sexual harassment victimization as predictors of adolescent alcohol use.

OBJECTIVE: The present study examined the independent and joint effects of bullying victimization and sexual harassment victimization on adolescent alcohol use over time within a community sample of adolescents. METHOD: Adolescents aged 13-15 years old at baseline (N = 800, Mage = 14.42, SD = 0.83; 57.5% female) recruited from Western New York State made five online survey reports of peer victimization and alcohol use over a 2-year period. Latent class growth analysis was used to identify trajectory classes of victimization from bullying and sexual harassment over time, and regression modeling was used to examine the associations with later alcohol use. RESULTS: Three developmental courses were identified for bullying victimization (moderate/decreasing, high/decreasing, never or low) and for sexual harassment victimization (moderate/decreasing, moderate/increasing, never or low). Adolescents in the moderate/decreasing group of bullying victimization subsequently consumed more alcoholic drinks when they drank. Belonging to the moderate/increasing group of sexual harassment was associated with increased later alcohol intoxication and number of drinks. Bullying victimization and sexual harassment victimization were concurrently correlated over time. Adolescents who followed the joint trajectory group of moderately decreasing bullying and increasing sexual harassment were more likely to report increased later alcohol intoxication and number of drinks. CONCLUSIONS: Moderate levels of bullying victimization along with increasing sexual harassment victimization are associated prospectively with greater alcohol use in adolescence. Findings highlight the importance of considering the cumulative, joint effects of multiple types of peer victimization on adolescent health outcomes. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Family Risk Exposure Profiles During Early Childhood: Developmental Processes and Adolescent Well-Being.

Although prior work indicates that exposure to multiple family risk factors negatively impacts adjustment in childhood and adolescence, few studies have examined whether children in high-risk families transition in and out of adversity during early childhood and whether patterns of change matter for adjustment in adolescence. Using data from a sample of 216 caregiver-child dyads participating in a study of prenatal cocaine exposure (116 exposed and 100 non-exposed; 50.9% girls), we used latent transition analysis to identify distinct profiles of early exposure to caregiver substance use (SU) and SU-related familial risk (caregiver psychological distress, exposure to violence, harshness, and low sensitivity) and the association between these profiles and adolescent well-being (i.e., hope, happiness, and life satisfaction). Assessments occurred when children were 13, 24, 36, and 48 months and during kindergarten (Mmonths = 66.16, SD = 4.47) and early adolescence (Myears = 13.26, SD = 0.88). Caregivers self-identified as 72.09% Black, 15.81% White, 10.23% Hispanic/Latinx, 1.40% other, and 0.47% American Indian. Four profiles of varying levels of exposure to caregiver SU and SU-related risks were identified from infancy to kindergarten: SU/family risks, no SU/low family risks, SU/negative parenting, and SU/low family risks. Most children stayed in the same profile (64.2%), while the rest transitioned between profiles. Children exposed to caregiver SU and family adversity had lower positive outcomes in adolescence. Stable membership in the SU/family risks profile had significant maladaptive consequences on adolescent well-being. Implications for research and the design of tailored interventions to promote well-being among at-risk youth are discussed.

The Role of Second Step Child Protection Unit Online Teacher Training in Explaining Teacher and Student Outcomes: Multilevel SEM Analysis.

Child sexual abuse (CSA) is a concern given its prevalence and harmful consequences such as depression, anxiety, substance misuse, and low academic performance, which pose great threats to children's sustainable development. In response, teachers must be empowered to play crucial roles in preventing CSA and intervening to avert CSA-related harm. We therefore explored the potential for online teacher training to improve teachers' preventive outcomes of CSA (awareness, commitment, and confidence in reporting) and student outcomes (CSA knowledge and ability to recognize, refuse, and report CSA). To assess the immediate effect of online teaching training, we analyzed pre-and post-test data from the implementation of the Second Step Child Protection Unit (CPU) on 131 teachers and 2,172 students using a multilevel structural equation modeling approach. We found a significant direct effect of online teacher training on improving teachers' preventive outcomes. Furthermore, we detected a significant indirect effect of online teacher training on children's preventive outcomes of CSA knowledge and ability to recognize, refuse, and report CSA via teachers' preventive outcomes of CSA awareness.

Examining Implicit Biases of Pre-Service Educators Within a Professional Development Context.

The opportunity gap, or conditions and barriers that impede the academic performance and school experience of minoritized students, may be exacerbated by educators' implicit biases. The aim of this qualitative study was to understand preservice educators' awareness of individual, structural, and systemic racism with regard to implicit bias. Our sample included 154 preservice educators, enrolled in an anti-bullying/harassment/discrimination training, which is required for any New York State (NYS) educator certification. Educators responded to questions about group generalizations, factors contributing to these biases, and how biases may affect their behavior toward students. Our content analysis revealed several themes, most notably that frequent biases existed toward Asian/Asian Americans, Black/African Americans, males, and people from socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds. Although participant responses reflect an open-minded approach to discussing bias, many responses reflected no observable desire to change potentially biased interactions with students. Responses with racially held biases aligned with the tenets of critical race theory (CRT), particularly racism as permanent and racism as normalized. Implications for practice, with an emphasis on anti-bias training and professional development, are discussed.

Sexual Victimization in Adolescence: Pathways of Risk from Sexual Harassment via Risky Alcohol Use and Delinquency Among U.S. Adolescents.

Sexual harassment is a common, yet understudied form of peer victimization experienced by adolescents during a critical period in the development of sexual identity. Adverse sexual experiences early in life (e.g., child sexual abuse) can increase risk of future sexual assault victimization; however, it is unclear as to whether sexual harassment victimization is also a risk factor for sexual assault. We examined the prospective association between peer sexual harassment and experiencing sexual victimization in the following year among a community sample of 13-15-year-old adolescents (N = 800, 57% female) from the northeastern USA. We also examined whether risky alcohol use and delinquency mediated the association between sexual harassment and sexual assault victimization, as well as whether the paths differed by gender. Results indicated that sexual harassment victimization prospectively predicted later sexual victimization for both girls and boys. Using a parallel mediation path model, we determined that for girls, sexual harassment victimization predicted both risky alcohol use and delinquency, but only risky alcohol use was predictive of sexual victimization. For boys, sexual harassment victimization predicted delinquency but not risky alcohol use. Risky alcohol use was not associated with sexual victimization for boys. Findings indicate that sexual harassment victimization increases risk of later sexual victimization in adolescence, but the pathways differ by gender.

Prenatal substance exposure, early-life adversity, and parenting: Associations with adolescent stress response.

We tested a conceptual model examining associations between prenatal substance exposure and adolescent cortisol reactivity profiles in response to an acute social evaluative stressor. We included cortisol reactivity in infancy, and direct and interactive effects of early-life adversity and parenting behaviors (sensitivity, harshness) from infancy to early school age on adolescent cortisol reactivity profiles in model testing. Participants were 216 families (51% female children; 116 cocaine-exposed) recruited at birth, oversampled for prenatal substance exposure, and assessed from infancy to early adolescence (EA). Majority of participants self-identified as Black (72% mothers, 57.2% adolescents), and caregivers were primarily from low-income families (76%), were single (86%), and had high school or below education (70%) at recruitment. Latent profile analyses identified three cortisol reactivity patterns including elevated (20.4%), moderate (63.1%), and blunted (16.5%) reactivity groups. Prenatal tobacco exposure was associated with higher likelihood of membership in the elevated reactivity compared to the moderate reactivity group. Higher caregiver sensitivity in early life was associated with lower likelihood of membership in the elevated reactivity group. Prenatal cocaine exposure was associated with higher maternal harshness. Interaction effects among early-life adversity and parenting indicated that caregiver sensitivity buffered, and harshness exacerbated, the likelihood that high early adversity would be associated with the elevated and blunted reactivity groups. Results highlight the potential importance of prenatal alcohol and tobacco exposure for cortisol reactivity and the role of parenting as exacerbating or buffering the impact of early-life adversity on adolescent stress response.

ASD Symptoms, Social Skills, and Comorbidity: Predictors of Bullying Perpetration.

Children with ASD are more likely to be involved in bullying compared to typically developing peers; however, studies rarely examine bullying perpetration and the contributing factors among this population. The primary aim of this study was to examine the extent to which parent-reported ASD symptoms, social skills, and comorbid externalizing and internalizing symptoms predicted bullying perpetration in a sample of 390 children with ASD without intellectual disability. Findings from hierarchical regression analyses indicated that social skill deficits, externalizing symptoms (i.e., hyperactivity, aggression, and conduct problems), and depressive symptoms were associated with higher likelihood of bullying perpetration, while severity of ASD symptoms and anxiety were not significant predictors. Further research is needed to better understand bullying perpetration among children with ASD.

Mother-Adolescent Agreement Concerning Peer Victimization:Predictors and Relation to Coping.

The current study analyzed adolescent, maternal, and family factors associated with mother-adolescent agreement on reports of verbal, relational, and physical forms of peer victimization. It also assessed the relationship between mother-adolescent agreement and adolescents' coping response to peer victimization. The sample consisted of 783 adolescents (337 male, 446 female) between the ages 13-15 and their mothers. Consistent with previous research, results showed mother-adolescent agreement to be low, with kappa coefficients ranging from .15 to .30 on items measuring adolescent peer victimization. A multinomial logistic regression analysis indicated that adolescent factors (age, gender, depression symptomology), maternal factors (depression symptomology, history of victimization), and family cohesion were significantly related to mother-adolescent agreement on reports of peer victimization. Lastly, mother-adolescent agreement on reports of adolescent peer victimization was associated with adolescents' increased use of adult support seeking and problem-solving and decreased use of passive-coping, distancing, and revenge-seeking as a coping response to peer victimization.

Peer sexual harassment, affect, and substance use: Daily level associations among adolescents.

INTRODUCTION: Peer sexual harassment is associated with adolescent substance use at the global level; however, it is unknown whether substance use occurs proximal in time to the sexual harassment experience. This study used daily reports to examine the proximal relations between sexual harassment victimization and affect and substance use. Based on theories of self-medication, we hypothesized that negative affect and substance use (cigarettes, electronic cigarettes, alcohol, and marijuana) would be higher than typical on days when sexual harassment occurred relative to nonvictimization days. METHOD: A community sample of 13-16-year-old adolescents (N = 204, 55.4% female) from a metropolitan area in the northeastern United States completed 56 days of online reports assessing experiences with peer sexual harassment, substance use (cigarettes, electronic cigarettes, alcohol, and marijuana), and positive and negative affect. RESULTS: Multilevel modeling revealed that experiencing sexual harassment on a given day was associated with higher than typical negative affect on that day, relative to nonvictimization days. The likelihood of cigarette and alcohol use (but not electronic cigarettes, marijuana, or positive affect) was greater on days when sexual harassment occurred. CONCLUSION: Sexual harassment victimization is proximally associated with negative affect and alcohol and cigarette use, suggesting that adolescents may be using substances to cope with sexual harassment victimization. The co-occurrence of sexual harassment with negative affect and substance use points to the need for prevention efforts that conjointly address sexual harassment victimization, coping, and substance use.

Teacher victimization and teachers' subjective well-being: Does school climate matter?

Guided by the job demands-resources model, we examined the multilevel associations between victimization experience with student violence directed against teachers, school climate, and teachers' subjective well-being (i.e., school connectedness and teaching efficacy) among 1711 teachers (7th-12th grade) from 58 middle and high schools in China. Hierarchical linear modeling analyses revealed that teachers who reported more frequent teacher victimization perceived a lower level of teaching efficacy; however, teachers in schools with a higher level of teacher victimization scores at the school level perceived a higher level of teaching efficacy. Although school climate was positively related to teacher well-being at both teacher and school levels, the negative association between teacher victimization and teachers' subjective well-being at the teacher level was exacerbated in schools with a more positive school climate at the school level. The significant cross-level moderating effect of school-level school climate in the association between teacher-level victimization and subjective well-being was consistent with the "healthy context paradox" but contradicted with the "emotion contagion hypothesis." Our findings support the risk influence of teacher victimization and the promotive role of positive school climate on teachers' subjective well-being. Our results also indicate that teachers in schools with a more positive and collective perception of school climate tend to be more attuned to the negative influences of teacher victimization on their subjective well-being than teachers in schools with a less positive and collective perception of school climate.

The role of personal and perceived peer norms in bullying and sexual harassment perpetration.

Bullying, cyberbullying, and sexual harassment can be impacted by both personal attitudes and perceived social norms, although few empirical studies on this topic have been conducted with high school students. In this cross-sectional study, 233 high school students completed measures about personal normative attitudes, perceptions of peer norms, and perpetration of bullying, cyberbullying, and sexual harassment. Consistent with social norms theory, students perceived themselves to hold more prosocial (i.e., antibullying/antisexual harassment) personal normative attitudes than they perceived the typical student in their school to hold (i.e., peer norms). Path analyses revealed that students' personal normative attitudes (e.g., antibullying/antiharassment) were negatively related to their bullying, cyberbullying, and sexual harassment perpetration, although perceived peer norms were negatively related to sexual harassment perpetration only. Multiple-group path analysis revealed significant gender differences. Personal normative attitudes related to females' behavior for all forms of perpetration and only sexual harassment and cyberbullying for males (with more antibullying/antiharassment attitudes relating to less perpetration), although associations for males were stronger. Perceived peer norms related to bullying perpetration for males only. Results are discussed with regard to social-cognitive and peer contextual factors and implications for social norms interventions. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Development of Bullying and Victimization: An Examination of Risk and Protective Factors in a High-Risk Sample.

This prospective longitudinal study from birth to late adolescence investigated how early risk predicted subsequent aggression in middle childhood and bullying perpetration, bullying victimization, and violence victimization in adolescence. In addition, the moderating role of protective factors (i.e., maternal sensitivity, positive peers, and school connectedness) on these associations were examined. Caregiver-infant dyads (N = 216; 72% Black/African American) were recruited as part of a longitudinal study on substance exposed youth. Data using multiple methods and informants (observations, interviews, caregiver, and child/youth self-reports) were collected from dyads in early childhood (EC, birth to 48 months), middle childhood (MC, i.e., 84 months), early adolescence (EA, M = 13.26 years, SD = .83) and later adolescence (LA, M = 15.08 years, SD = .83). A developmental cascading path model was tested. There were direct associations between EC maternal harsh parenting and aggression in MC. In turn, MC aggression was associated with higher violence victimization and bullying in EA. Finally, EA violence victimization was then associated with higher levels of bullying as well as victimization from bullying in LA. Consistent with predictions, there was also evidence that protective factors (i.e., maternal sensitivity and positive peers) moderated the impact of predictor variables on aggression and bullying outcomes. Specifically, maternal sensitivity moderated the link between EC and MC aggression, such that those with moderately high levels of maternal sensitivity showed a negative relation between EC and MC aggression, whereas those with low levels of maternal sensitivity showed continuity in aggression. Positive peer influence moderated the link between violence victimization in EA and bullying in LA, such that children high on both violence victimization and positive peers had the highest levels of bullying victimization.

Adolescent Social Media Use: Pitfalls and Promises in Relation to Cybervictimization, Friend Support, and Depressive Symptoms.

The saturation of social media use in adolescents' lives has raised questions about both the risks and positive outcomes that may be associated with use. This study filled this gap by examining longitudinal associations among active social media use and depressive symptoms for male and female adolescents and the mediating role of friend support and cybervictimization. These relations were investigated in a sample of 800 13-15-year-old (M = 14.45) adolescents (57% female, 81% White) across four waves of data over two years. The results indicated that higher levels of active social media use led to reduced depressive symptoms for female adolescents, while active social media use predicted more cybervictimization for male adolescents. In contrast, cybervictimization predicted higher levels of active social media use for female adolescents. Friend support predicted more active social media use for male and female adolescents. Overall, findings reveal a complex picture of social media use for both male and female adolescents and further research is needed which examines types of social media use and their associations with both online and offline experiences.

Child Community Violence Exposure in an at-Risk Sample: Developmental Trajectories, Caregiving Risks, and the Role of Child Temperament.

Objective: To better understand early etiological pathways to trajectories of child exposure to community violence (CECV), we used person-centered latent class growth analysis (LCGA) to examine chronicity of CECV from early school age through early adolescence, and examined early risks of the identified CECV trajectories (i.e., prenatal cocaine exposure, harsh parenting and caregiving instability across infancy and early childhood, and child activity level and inhibitory control at kindergarten age). Method: An at-risk sample (N = 216; 110 girls) of primarily low-income participants (76% on Temporary Assistance for Needy Families) with high rates of prenatal substance exposure was used. The majority of the mothers were African American (72%), had high school or below education (70%), and were single (86%). Postnatal assessments occurred at eight time points during infancy and toddlerhood, early childhood through early school age, and early adolescence. Results: We identified two distinct linearly increasing CECV trajectories (high-exposure and low-exposure). An interaction between child activity level and maternal harshness emerged, such that children with high activity levels and experiencing high harshness had the highest probabilities of being in the high exposure-increasing trajectory, in addition to early caregiving instability (conditional effect). Conclusion: The current findings not only have important theoretical implications but also provide insights into early intervention.

Family cohesion and the relations among peer victimization and depression: A random intercepts cross-lagged model.

The relation between peer victimization and depressive symptoms is complex, requiring the use of methodologically rigorous designs to examine these relations and potential mediating factors. The current study used a random intercepts cross-lagged panel model (RI-CLPM) to investigate both between-person and within-person associations in peer victimization, depressive symptoms, and family cohesion across five waves in a sample of adolescents (N = 801, ages 13-15 years at recruitment) in the Northeast. We also investigated the moderating effects of sex and victimization status (i.e., bullying victimization vs. peer victimization). Overall, findings revealed a reciprocal relation between peer victimization and depressive symptoms for females, but no relation for males. A reciprocal relation between peer victimization and family cohesion was found for males. No significant differences were found by victimization status. Future research on peer victimization and associated outcomes and the role of family should account for both between-person and within-person variance.

Developmental Pathways from Prenatal Substance Exposure to Reactive Aggression.

Few studies have examined etiological pathways from prenatal substance exposure to adolescent reactive aggression. We tested a conceptual model that included hypothesized pathways from prenatal substance exposure to adolescent aggression via autonomic reactivity and violence exposure from infancy to early school age and maternal harshness across early childhood. The sample included 216 families (106 boys) who primarily self-identified as Black or Mixed Race. Results supported the hypothesized path from violence exposure across early childhood and early school age to school age autonomic reactivity and early adolescent reactive aggression. There was also a significant interaction effect of sympathetic and parasympathetic reactivity on adolescent reactive aggression, with sympathetic arousal and parasympathetic suppression at early school age associated with higher reactive relational and physical aggression in adolescence. Results emphasize the importance of early experiences and autonomic nervous system changes in contributing to the cascade of risk for reactive aggression in early adolescence.

The COVID-19 pandemic as a long-term school crisis: Impact, risk, resilience, and crisis management.

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic presents school communities across the United States and world with an unpresented challenge. Virtually, all members of school communities have been impacted and the long-term ramifications of the pandemic remain unknown. However, despite being a novel virus, crisis management practices for other crisis (e.g., natural disasters, technological disasters, unexpected deaths) have utility for school safety promotion and helping affected individuals cope effectively with the monumental challenges they face during the pandemic. Such practices can reduce risk while fostering resilience concomitantly. This special issue, Perspectives on COVID-19: Addressing Diverse Needs of Children, Youth, Families, Educators, and Human Service Professionals, includes a diverse collection of conceptual, quantitative, and qualitative articles addressing the impact of COVID-19 pandemic on youth and their families, educators, allied human services professionals, and the systems in which they work. Consistent with a crisis management and risk and resilience perspectives, articles emphasize youth most vulnerable to the impact of COVID-19, including youth with disabilities, from minoritized backgrounds, and within underserved populations. Articles also have implications for coping, resilience, and intervention and focus on how service delivery can best meet the needs of those impacted by acute and chronic crisis events. The research and scholarship included in this special issue represents an important step forward with providing school psychologists and related professions with cutting-edge information that can help enhance their practice during the COVID-19 pandemic and beyond. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).