Sex determination by tooth size in a sample of Greek population.

Sex assessment from tooth measurements can be of major importance for forensic and bioarchaeological investigations, especially when only teeth or jaws are available. The purpose of this study is to assess the reliability and applicability of establishing sex identity in a sample of Greek population using the discriminant function proposed by Rösing et al. (1995). The study comprised of 172 dental casts derived from two private orthodontic clinics in Athens. The individuals were randomly selected and all had clear medical history. The mesiodistal crown diameters of all the teeth were measured apart from those of the 3rd molars. The values quoted for the sample to which the discriminant function was first applied were similar to those obtained for the Greek sample. The results of the preliminary statistical analysis did not support the use of the specific discriminant function for a reliable determination of sex by means of the mesiodistal diameter of the teeth. However, there was considerable variation between different populations and this might explain the reason for lack of discriminating power of the specific function in the Greek population. In order to investigate whether a better discriminant function could be obtained using the Greek data, separate discriminant function analysis was performed on the same teeth and a different equation emerged without, however, any real improvement in the classification process, with an overall correct classification of 72%. The results showed that there were a considerably higher percentage of females correctly classified than males. The results lead to the conclusion that the use of the mesiodistal diameter of teeth is not as a reliable method as one would have expected for determining sex of human remains from a forensic context. Therefore, this method could be used only in combination with other identification approaches.

The relationship between osteoporosis and periodontitis in women aged 45-70 years.

OBJECTIVE: To explore the possible relationship between the osteoporotic condition and the severity of periodontitis in women aged 45-70 years. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Ninety women with generalized chronic periodontitis, aged 45-70 years, were studied. Areal bone mineral density (BMDa) was assessed using standardized dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (normal: T-score ≥ -1, osteopenic: -2.5 ≤ T-score <-1, osteoporotic: T-score < -2.5). Gingival index (GI), bleeding on probing, clinical attachment loss (CAL), probing pocket depth and gingival recession (GR) were recorded. Periodontitis severity was represented by CAL. Menopausal condition and smoking were documented. RESULTS: Mean GI, bleeding on probing, CAL and GR were significantly greater for osteoporotic women than women with normal BMDa (P = 0.002, P = 0.01, P = 0.04, respectively). Osteopenic women and women with normal BMDa significantly differed in mean GI (P = 0.02). The associations found between osteoporotic women and women with normal BMDa and the associations found between osteopenic women and women with normal BMDa existed even after adjusting for smoking and menopausal status. CONCLUSION: Subjects with osteoporosis (OPR) presented with greater CAL than the subjects with normal BMDa, which suggests a greater severity of periodontitis. Subjects with OPR had greater GR than the subjects with normal BMDa. Subjects with osteopenia and subjects with normal BMDa did not differ in CAL, which might suggest that the early diagnosis of reduced BMDa, prior to the establishment of a significant negative impact on the periodontal tissues, might be important. Smoking and menopausal status did not alter these associations.

Prediction of osteoporosis with dental radiographs and age.

OBJECTIVES: In this study age and the trabecular pattern present on dental radiographs were used to predict the presence of osteoporosis. The objective was to evaluate the contribution of the trabecular pattern to the prediction. METHODS: In this project, 671 women between 45 and 71 years of age were recruited. Medical history was obtained and dental radiographs were made. Bone mineral density (BMD) was measured at three sites to assess the presence of osteoporosis according to the World Health Organization criteria. The radiographs were subjected to image analysis methods yielding measurements of the trabecular pattern. Thereafter, discriminant analysis was used to predict the presence of osteoporosis by means of the trabecular pattern and age. Sensitivity and specificity of age and the trabecular pattern were compared. Also, it was checked whether the inclusion of the trabecular pattern improved the sensitivity and specificity that were obtained when only age was used as the predictor. RESULTS: The sensitivity and specificity of the trabecular pattern present on dental radiographs were almost equal to those of age. However, combining age with the trabecular pattern increased the sensitivity from 0.71 to 0.75 and the specificity from 0.72 to 0.78; the latter increase was statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: The trabecular pattern predicts the presence of osteoporosis just as well as age does. When combining the trabecular pattern with age, the sensitivity and specificity increased. Only the latter increase was statistically significant.

Selecting regions of interest on intraoral radiographs for the prediction of bone mineral density.

OBJECTIVES: A previous study showed that the trabecular pattern on dental radiographs correlates with femoral and spinal bone mineral density (BMD). The objective of this study was to determine if the correlation is affected by the size and location of the region of interest (ROI). METHODS: In a European research project on osteoporosis, BMD was measured at the left hip and the lumbar spine of 525 women. From all subjects, intraoral radiographs were made of the premolar region in the upper and lower jaws. Two ROIs were indicated manually on each scanned image. The smallest region involved only trabecular bone and the largest also included parts of the neighbouring teeth. The ROIs were subjected to automatic image analysis, yielding 26 measurements per ROI. Stepwise linear regression was used to predict femoral and spinal BMD. RESULTS: Inner and outer regions predicted BMD equally well. The radiographs of lower and upper jaw also predicted BMD equally well. Combining inner and outer regions did not improve the prediction of femoral and spinal BMD, but combining lower and upper jaws did. CONCLUSIONS: This study shows that it is possible to include parts of neighbouring teeth in the ROI used to assess the trabecular pattern and predict BMD. This simplifies the process of selecting the ROIs because no efforts have to be made to exclude neighbouring teeth. Combining ROIs of lower and upper jaws significantly improves the prediction of BMD.

The role of the dental surgeon in detecting osteoporosis: the OSTEODENT study.

OBJECTIVE: To determine if thinning (<3 mm width) of the lower cortical border of the mandible on dental panoramic radiographs, as well as other clinical risk factors, may provide a useful diagnostic test for osteoporosis in young postmenopausal women. DESIGN: Six hundred and fifty-two subjects (age range 45-70 years) were involved in this multi-centre, cross-sectional study. SETTING: Patients were recruited from centres in Leuven (Belgium), Athens (Greece), Manchester (UK), and Malmo (Sweden). SUBJECTS AND METHODS: The subject's age, body weight, whether the patient took hormone replacement therapy or had a history of low trauma fracture were used to form a clinical osteoporosis risk assessment (the OSteoporosis Index of RISk or OSIRIS index). Each patient also received a dental panoramic radiographic examination. RESULTS: One hundred and forty subjects had osteoporosis involving at least one of the measurement sites (lumbar spine, femoral neck or total hip). Those with osteoporosis tended to have a low OSIRIS score and a thinned cortical mandibular border. The area under the ROC curve for using both cortical width and OSIRIS to predict osteoporosis was 0.90 (95% CI = 0.87 to 0.92). There was a significant improvement in the diagnostic ability of the combined OSIRIS and cortical width test over both tests applied separately (p <0.001). The cost effectiveness of the cortical width and OSIRIS model was improved by using a high specificity threshold rather than high sensitivity. However, this analysis ignores the costs associated with missed cases of osteoporosis. CONCLUSION: Dentists have a role to play in the detection and referral of patients at high risk of osteoporosis.

Osteoporosis and the general dental practitioner: reliability of some digital dental radiological measures.

OBJECTIVES: Dental radiographs are relatively inexpensive and are regularly made of a large fraction of the adult population; therefore, they represent an enormous potential as a screening tool for osteoporosis. Monitoring the population by means of dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), which is currently the most accepted method for diagnosing osteoporosis, involves enormous costs and facilities. In previous studies, it was shown that the radiographic trabecular pattern shows correlations with the bone mineral density (BMD) as measured by DXA. The objective of this study was to assess the reproducibility of the quantitative analysis of the trabecular pattern on dental radiographs. METHODS: Six regions of interest were selected manually on three digital radiographic images of 20 women. This process was performed 10 times resulting in 1200 image samples. For each image sample 26 parameters were measured. The reliability of the parameters was evaluated by means of Cronbach's alpha. RESULTS: Of the values of Cronbach's alpha 83% is at least 0.9 and 99% is at least 0.8. CONCLUSIONS: The measurements of the parameters used in this study are very reproducible. Therefore, the manual selection of the regions of interest does not introduce large amounts of noise. The imaging parameters potentially offer an accurate tool for the prediction of BMD values.

Dental diagnostic radiology in the forensic sciences: two case presentations.

Dentomaxillofacial radiology is a useful tool in forensic science to reveal characteristics of the structures of the dentomaxillofacial region. Postmortem radiographs are valuable to the forensic odontologist for comparison with antemortem radiographs, which are the most consistent part of the antemortem records that can be transmitted during forensic examination procedures. By using dentomaxillofacial radiology we can, therefore, give answers to problems dealing with identification cases, mass disasters and dental age estimation. We present the contribution of dentomaxillofacial radiology to the forensic sciences through two cases of deceased persons, where identification was based on information provided by radiographs. The right performance, interpretation and reportage of dentomaxillofacial radiological examination and procedures can be extremely valuable in solving forensic problems.

Prediction of bone mineral density with dental radiographs.

There is consensus to use the bone mineral density (BMD) for the operational definition of the degree of osteoporosis and the risk of osteoporotic fractures. Dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) is the common technique to determine BMD. Because of high costs and limited availability of DXA equipment it is worthwhile to look for alternative diagnostic techniques. As part of a larger study, the Osteodent project, we investigated if the trabecular pattern on dental radiographs can be used to predict BMD and to identify the subjects with osteoporosis and increased risk of osteoporotic fractures. In four clinical centers 671 women with an average age of 55 years were recruited. BMD values were measured by DXA equipment at the femoral neck, total hip, and spine. One panoramic and two intraoral radiographs were made. From 525 women a complete set of BMD values and radiographs was obtained. Four regions of interest on the radiographs were selected manually and then processed automatically. On all regions of interest mean and standard deviation of the gray values were measured and several features describing the shape of the binarized trabecular pattern. Multiple regression was used to predict BMD of total hip and spine by means of the radiographic measurements combined with age. It was found that age accounts for 10% of the variation in total hip BMD and 14% of the variation in spinal BMD. When all measurements on the dental radiographs are used the explained variation increases to 22% and 23%. The areas under the ROC curves are comparable to those of commonly used screening instruments for osteoporosis. It is concluded that prediction of DXA measurements of BMD by means of quantitative analysis of the trabecular pattern on dental radiographs is feasible.

The influence of the X-ray spectrum at compact bone-titanium interfaces in digital dental radiography.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the optimum X-ray spectrum in digital dental radiography once the dose around an implant and the diagnostic usefulness of the image are taken into account. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A Monte Carlo code (MCNP4B) was employed for computing the dose distribution across the bone-titanium interface. The X-ray spectra used were those met in digital dental radiography; 50-70 kVp, 2 mm Al total filtration, 5 kVp increment. RESULTS: The variation of the ratio of dose with as opposed to without implant against depth reaches maximum values at the bone-implant interface that vary between 2.9 and 3.2. For the same number of photon histories followed, the higher the tube potential setting, the greater the dose both in contact and inside the implant. CONCLUSION: In digital dental radiography, a 60-65 kVp spectrum accompanied by the known 30% reduction in mAs leads to lower dose to the patient for a diagnostically useful image.

Detectability of experimental peri-implant cancellous bone lesions using conventional and direct digital radiography.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to compare the diagnostic performance obtained from direct digital radiographic images (in their original form and after applying a grey-scale inversion) and conventional film in the detection of artificial peri-implant cancellous bone lesions. METHODS: Four titanium implants were placed into the cancellous bone of a dry mandible and increasingly larger bone defects were created in their approximal sites. Radiographs were taken using conventional film and a digital charge-coupled device sensor. Twelve observers estimated three series of images (conventional, digital original, digital inverse) on a 5-point confidence scale. Data were evaluated statistically by analysis of variance and the sensitivity, specificity and accuracy of the three imaging modalities were calculated. RESULTS: Total mean observer confidence scores increased as the size of the defect also increased. No statistically significant differences were found among the three images for the absence of defect and the defect that corresponds to the smallest bur size. Significant differences were found for larger bur sizes between the conventional image and the two digital images and for the largest bur size between the digital inverse and the other two images. Specificity was high and sensitivity relatively low. CONCLUSIONS: Peri-implant bone lesions must exceed a certain size to be confidently detected but the lesion absence is detected equally well with all three imaging modalities.

Accuracy and precision of a densitometric tool for jaw bone.

OBJECTIVES: To develop a digital densitometric tool for jaw bone to analyse intraoral radiographs. To assess precision and accuracy for this tool and determine the minimal detection threshold for density changes. METHODS: Bone samples deriving from the premolar region of 47 human mandibles were selected for analysis. The samples were obtained from adult cadavers in the department of anatomy (Faculty of Medicine, KULeuven) with ethical approval. Digital radiography was performed on all bone samples. Direct volumetric measurements served as gold standard density values and allowed determination of accuracy. Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scans were performed on all specimens. For all radiographs, density in mm Al eq was calculated using custom-made software, Osteop. Precision and intraobserver and interobserver reliability of this method were assessed. The bone specimens were progressively decalcified. At standard time intervals the percentage of decalcification was calculated. At each decalcification step, radiographs were taken and analysed. RESULTS: CV was always lower than 3%, which points to a good precision of the method. Correlation between the density measurements in mm Al eq and the DXA results was 0.9, for the density measurements in mm Al eq and the direct density measurements r was 0.5. The custom-made software was able to detect a change in bone mineralization of 6.6%. CONCLUSIONS: The present method for bone densitometric analysis offers potentials for clinical evaluation of bone density and minute bone density changes in the jaw bone.

Radiation absorbed doses at compact bone-titanium interfaces in diagnostic radiography: a Monte Carlo approach.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to estimate the radiation absorbed dose at cortical tissue-implant interfaces in diagnostic radiology. METHODS: Since our interest was the radiation dose at an interface (cortical bone-implant interface), a Monte Carlo simulation was considered to be the most suitable method for studying the problem. The Monte Carlo code employed was MCNP4B. A phantom consisting of soft tissue, cortical bone, an implant and air, with appropriate chemical compositions and densities, was described in the code. The implant simulated had a commercial name of ASTM67, grade 2 and was 1.9 mm wide. The incident photon beam was divergent of 20 cm x 20 cm at a source-to-phantom distance of 40 cm. Two energy spectra were employed (70 kVp and 100 kVp, 0.5 mm Al internal filtration) and their photon fluence distribution against energy was described in the code with an energy interval of 5 keV. The computations that led to radiation dose calculations had a spatial resolution of 0.01 cm (100 microm) to allow a detailed radiation dose distribution across the cortical bone-titanium interface. Monte Carlo runs took place both with and without an implant in the phantom and, in each case, 120 million photon histories were followed, leading to a radiation dose statistical fluctuation between 5% and 10%. RESULTS: The ratio of radiation dose with implant to dose without implant against depth allows a direct estimate of the effect of the implant on the radiation dose to the cortical bone surrounding the implant. At a distance >or=100 microm there was no radiation dose increase due to the titanium implant. However, in contact with the implant (i.e. the first layers of cells) there was a sharp radiation dose increase as high as 3.5 times the radiation dose compared with when the implant was absent. Also, the newly formed bone inside the implant's tiny hole received a radiation dose close to 50% of the radiation dose without the implant owing to high absorption by the implant itself. CONCLUSIONS: Assuming that the patient received five radiographic images over a 6-month period, the maximum radiation dose at the cortical bone-titanium interface was estimated to be less than 20 mGy (0.02 Gy).

Image processing for enhanced observer agreement in the evaluation of periapical bone changes.

AIM: The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of root canal treatment on periapical lesions by conventional and subtracted digital radiographic images of clinical cases. METHODOLOGY: Eleven patients who exhibited clinical or radiological signs of periapical pathology received root canal treatment. Periapical radiographs were obtained immediately postoperatively and recall radiographs at intervals of 3, 6, 9 and 12 months postoperatively were obtained. Identical exposure geometry was maintained. From the standardized radiographs digitized images were produced. Four experienced practitioners interpreted the radiographs and the digitized images. They assessed 59 pairs of images projected at random using a slide projector. On the left side, there was a reference image with no lesion, and on the right an image either with or without a lesion. Each reader was asked to rate each pair of images on a three-point scale: yes, absolutely sure that gain or loss was present; uncertain, if there was gain or loss; no, absolutely sure that no gain or loss was present. There was no time limit for each decision. Inter- and intra-examiner agreement was analyzed using the kappa-statistic for the diagnosis of periapical bone density changes in the periapical region at the different time points either in conventional pairs of radiographs or using digital subtraction images. RESULTS: The inter-examiner agreement (P < 0.001) and the intra-examiner agreement (P = 0.02) when digital pictures where evaluated were significantly higher than with conventional radiographs. CONCLUSIONS: A highly significantly better observer agreement was achieved by digital subtraction radiography during the evaluation of the outcome of root canal treatment on periapical lesions.

Radiographic appearance of alveolar osseous defects in relation to their anatomic location.

Radiographs are of limited value in the diagnosis of osseous defects. Anatomic and technical factors affect the radiographic appearance of bone lesions. This study was undertaken in order to determine whether the radiographic appearance of alveolar osseous defects depends on their location, and particularly whether there are any differences in radiographic detection between bone defects located in the maxilla or the mandible, and on the buccal or lingual aspects of the alveolar crest. Experimental bone lesions were created in the alveolar crest of a skull. Standardized periapical radiographs were obtained before and after the defects were made. After processing, pairs of radiographs were randomly mounted. Five dentists acted as observers in order to determine whether or not a change in alveolar bone was detectable at each of the five possible locations. The unpaired t test was applied for the assessment of statistically significant differences with respect to sensitivity, specificity, and positive diagnostic value in the diagnosis of bone lesions depending on their location. The results showed that the anatomic location of a lesion in the alveolar bone affected its radiographic appearance. Moreover, experimental defects were detected more often in the mandible and on the lingual surfaces of the alveolar crest.

Subtraction radiography in oral implantology.

Radiographic examinations in connection with implant installation are important means to diagnose changes in the bone tissue following implantation. During the healing and early remodeling phases, a slight reduction of the marginal bone height occurs in the first year after implantation, which is followed by an even smaller annual mean loss in bone height. Conventional radiographs, however, are of limited value for reliable assessment of subtle alveolar bone changes, although methods were developed to standardize the projection geometry of serial radiographs from implants to improve the accuracy in detecting changes of the peri-implant bone height. Newer radiographic diagnostic methods should not only comprise the possibility of metric assessment of bone height but also further information on changes in density. This report emphasizes the potential of digital subtraction radiography as a sensitive diagnostic tool in peri-implant diagnosis. Minute peri-implant density changes may occur in the healing phase after implant installation, after loading, and during the maintenance phase.

Patterns of periodontal destruction associated with incomplete root fractures.

OBJECTIVES: To clarify the differential radiographic diagnostics of teeth with incomplete root fracture. METHODS: Information on 88 teeth with either a vertical root fracture without displacement of the fractured fragments (n = 22), a vertical periodontal defect (n = 22), a periodontal-endodontic lesion (n = 22) or an endodontic-periapical lesion (n = 22) was collected retrospectively from the patients' records. RESULTS: Significant differences in the mean probing pocket depths were found between each of the four groups of lesions. Teeth with root fractures demonstrated smaller mean probing pocket depths than those with either periodontal or periodontal-endodontic lesions. Radiographic bone loss was significantly greater in teeth with periodontal and periodontal-endodontic lesions when compared with those with fractures. In teeth with vertical root fractures, there was no correlation between the probing depth and the radiographic bone loss (r = 0.01). The correlation coefficient between the greatest probing depth and alveolar bone loss was r = -0.16 in the fractured teeth, with higher values for the other three groups of lesions. 86.4% of the teeth with fractures had a complete root canal filling. Posts were present in 22.7% of the fractured teeth and in 13% of those with an endodontic periapical lesion. 91% of the teeth with vertical fractures were crowned or fixed-bridge abutments. Only 5% of the fractured teeth had no evidence of periapical bone changes. CONCLUSIONS: Incomplete root fractures mainly involve teeth which have undergone successful endodontic treatment. An isolated pocket on one aspect of a suspected tooth is reliably diagnostic for a root fracture.

Diagnosis of alveolar bone changes with digital subtraction images and conventional radiographs. An in vitro study.

The purpose of the present study was to compare the diagnostic properties of radiographs obtained with Ultra-Speed and Ektaspeed films when analyzed conventionally radiographs and after conversion in digital subtraction images. Artificial lesions, measuring 0.5, 0.7, 0.9, and 1.1 mm in diameter, were drilled in a dry skull with slow-speed burs. Standardized radiographs were obtained by means of acrylic bite blocks and a modification of the Rinn system. The results of this study demonstrated that sensitivity in the detection of the lesions was doubled after digitizing and displaying subtraction images compared with the conventional radiographic interpretation, independent of the use of Ektaspeed or Ultra-Speed films for the original radiographs. The diagnostic information seemed to be equal in radiographs obtained from Ultra-Speed and Ektaspeed films after digitization and image processing procedures.

Local differences in the newly formed crevicular microbiota.

Subgingival plaque samples were taken from upper and lower right canines, premolars, and first molars (distal, mid-buccal and lingual) in 10 periodontally healthy individuals after four days without oral hygiene. The samples were examined in the darkfield microscope. Counts and proportions of morphotypes were related to the location of the sampled sites. The influence of site location on the distribution of morphotypes was studied by multiple regression analysis. Inter-individual differences were significant for the proportions of cocci, nonmotile rods and fusiform organisms (p less than 0.001), the influence of site location was not. Significant differences (p less than 0.05) were found between total bacterial counts of samples taken from different sites: Distal-buccal samples contained more bacteria than did mid-buccal samples, mid-buccal ones contained more than lingual samples; samples from more posterior teeth contained more bacteria. The experiment was repeated after 5 weeks. The intertest agreement (kappa) for the presence of the different morphotypes ranged between 0.13 and 0.30. Coefficients of variation of the proportions of morphotypes determined in repeated samples were between 1.35 and 3.13.

[Digital subtraction radiography technique in oral diagnosis]. / E technike tes psephiakes aphairetikes aktinographias ste diagnostike tou stomatos.

The introduction of digital subtraction radiography for the evaluation of standardised dental radiographs offered increased diagnostic accuracy in the detection of subtle density changes over interpretation of conventional radiographs. The digital imaging techniques for the analysis of dental radiographs were reviewed with emphasis on periodontal diagnosis. Recently, these methods, which have been extensively tested in vitro, were applied to clinical trials for the assessment of alveolar bone density changes due to progression of disease or healing following therapy.

Diagnostic problems of periodontitis-like lesions caused by eosinophilic granuloma.

Eosinophilic granuloma is the localized and mildest form of histiocytosis X. It is a destructive osseous lesion characterized by large numbers of eosinophils and histiocytes. The etiology of the disease is unknown. Frequently the jaws, including the periodontium, are involved and the disease stimulates severe localized periodontitis. A case of eosinophilic granuloma of the jawbone is presented. The pertinent clinical features are emphasized and possible problems in the interpretation of clinical periodontal features are discussed.