Correction to: Gender inequality in the health workforce in the midst of achieving universal health coverage in Mexico.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via the original article.

Gender inequality in the health workforce in the midst of achieving universal health coverage in Mexico.

BACKGROUND: The third Sustainable Development Goal aims to ensure healthy lives and to promote well-being for all at all ages. The health system plays a key role in achieving these goals and must have sufficient human resources in order to provide care to the population according to their needs and expectations. METHODS: This paper explores the issues of unemployment, underemployment, and labor wastage in physicians and nurses in Mexico, all of which serve as barriers to achieving universal health coverage. We conducted a descriptive, observational, and longitudinal study to analyze the rates of employment, underemployment, unemployment, and labor wastage during the period 2005-2017 by gender. We used data from the National Occupation and Employment Survey. Calculating the average annual rates (AAR) for the period, we describe trends of the calculated rates. In addition, for 2017, we calculated health workforce densities for each of the 32 Mexican states and estimated the gaps with respect to the threshold of 4.45 health workers per 1000 inhabitants, as proposed in the Global Strategy on Human Resources for Health. RESULTS: The AAR of employed female physicians was lower than men, and the AARs of qualitative underemployment, unemployment, and labor wastage for female physicians are higher than those of men. Female nurses, however, had a higher AAR in employment than male nurses and a lower AAR of qualitative underemployment and unemployment rates. Both female physicians and nurses showed a higher AAR in labor wastage rates than men. The density of health workers per 1000 inhabitants employed in the health sector was 4.20, and the estimated deficit of workers needed to match the threshold proposed in the Global Strategy is 70 161 workers distributed among the 16 states that do not reach the threshold. CONCLUSIONS: We provide evidence of the existence of gender gaps among physicians and nurses in the labor market with evident disadvantages for female physicians, particularly in labor wastage. In addition, our results suggest that the lack of physicians and nurses working in the health sector contributes to the inability to reach the health worker density threshold proposed by the Global Strategy.

[Human resources needed to affter health prevention and promotion to adults in primary health care]. / Profesionales necesarios para brindar servicios de prevención y promoción de la salud a población adulta en el primer nivel.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate human resources (HR) needed to deliver prevention and health promotion actions to the population of 20 years and more in units of primary health care (UPHC). MATERIALS AND METHODS: We included 20 UPHC; one urban and one rural for each of the ten selected Mexican states. HR were estimated based on the time to do prevention and health promotion activities, from which a budget was calculated. Measures of central tendency and dispersion were reported, using the ANOVA test and the Wilcoxon test. RESULTS: The number of health professionals estimated in UPHC with spent time is less than the number estimated with required time. CONCLUSIONS: The estimated density of health professionals per population needed to offer prevention and health promotion activities for people 20 years and more in UPHC is greater than the current density of health professionals.

[Identification of users using cluster analysis according to degree of satisfaction with geriatric care services]. / Identificação dos usuários segundo nível de satisfação nos módulos gerontológicos empregando a análise de conglomerados.

The aim of this study was to identify groups of users according to their degree of satisfaction with geriatric care services and determine the primary factors associated with satisfaction. This was a cross-sectional study of 181 people enrolled in 36 modules pertaining to the State Workers Social Security Institute (ISSSTE) in Mexico. Degree of satisfaction was measured according to the following three areas: general characteristics of services offered, friendliness of staff and infrastructure. A cluster analysis was performed to identify groups of users according to their level of satisfaction, and an ordinal logistic regression model was used to determine the associated factors. Fifty-three percent were satisfied with the services, 34.3% were fairly satisfied and 12.7% were dissatisfied. The main characteristics associated with a greater degree of satisfaction were being female, older and the head of household. The health system must address this growing population and ensure the development of quality care to meet their needs.

Profesionales necesarios para brindar servicios de prevención y promoción de la salud a población adulta en el primer nivel / Human resources needed to affter health prevention and promotion to adults in primary health care

OBJETIVO: Estimar los recursos humanos (RH) para brindar acciones de prevención y promoción de la salud a la población de 20 años o más en unidades de primer nivel de atención (UPA). MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Se incluyeron 20 UPA, una urbana y otra rural, por cada uno de los diez estados seleccionados de la República mexicana. Los RH se estimaron en función del tiempo para realizar actividades de prevención y promoción de la salud, y con ellos se calculó el presupuesto requerido para su financiamiento. Se reportaron medidas de tendencia central y de dispersión, utilizando el test ANOVA y la prueba de Wilcoxon. RESULTADOS: El número de profesionales de salud estimados en la UPA con el tiempo utilizado es menor que el estimado con el tiempo requerido. CONCLUSIONES: La densidad estimada de profesionales de salud por habitante para realizar acciones de prevención y promoción de la salud en la población de 20 años o más es mayor que la densidad actual de profesionales de salud en las UPA.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate human resources (HR) needed to deliver prevention and health promotion actions to the population of 20 years and more in units of primary health care (UPHC). MATERIALS AND METHODS: We included 20 UPHC; one urban and one rural for each of the ten selected Mexican states. HR were estimated based on the time to do prevention and health promotion activities, from which a budget was calculated. Measures of central tendency and dispersion were reported, using the ANOVA test and the Wilcoxon test. RESULTS: The number of health professionals estimated in UPHC with spent time is less than the number estimated with required time. CONCLUSIONS: The estimated density of health professionals per population needed to offer prevention and health promotion activities for people 20 years and more in UPHC is greater than the current density of health professionals.

Social participation and quality of health care: the experience of citizens' health representatives in Mexico.

OBJECTIVE: This article describes the experience of the aval ciudadano "Citizens' Representative" (CR) in improving the Mexican health care system. METHODS: This is a qualitative study which took place in eight Mexican states in 2008. It evaluates different aspects of a nationwide program to increase the quality of health care services (National Crusade for Quality in Health Services). The Mexican strategy is compared with experiences in other Latin American countries. RESULTS: In this paper, there is the description of achievements and problems encountered by the CR in promoting social participation in the health of the population. CONCLUSIONS: The CR has great influence when representing health service users and passing on their demands for improvements to health care quality.

Identificação dos usuários segundo nível de satisfação nos módulos gerontológicos empregando a análise de conglomerados / Identification of users using cluster analysis according to degree of satisfaction with geriatric care services / Identificación de los pacientes según nivel de satisfacción en módulos gerontológicos empleando el análisis de conglomerados

Esta pesquisa teve como objetivos identificar os grupos de usuários segundo o grau de satisfação com a atenção recebida nos Módulos Gerontológicos e determinar os principais fatores associados. Trata-se de estudo transversal realizado com 181 usuários nos 36 módulos do Seguro Social dos Trabalhadores Públicos, no México. O nível de satisfação foi avaliado segundo três aspectos: características gerais da atenção recebida, amabilidade no trato e infraestrutura. Foi realizada uma análise de conglomerados para identificar grupos de usuários segundo o grau de satisfação e um modelo de regressão logística ordinal para identificar os fatores associados. Estiveram satisfeitos com o serviço 53% dos usuários; medianamente satisfeitos, 34,3%; e insatisfeitos, 12,7%. Os principais fatores associados com maior grau de satisfação foram: ser mulher, maior idade e ser chefe/a de família. O sistema de saúde deve dirigir sua atenção para esse grupo populacional que é crescente e incentivar o desenvolvimento de uma atenção de qualidade que contemple as suas necessidades.

The aim of this study was to identify groups of users according to their degree of satisfaction with geriatric care services and determine the primary factors associated with satisfaction. This was a cross-sectional study of 181 people enrolled in 36 modules pertaining to the State Workers Social Security Institute (ISSSTE) in Mexico. Degree of satisfaction was measured according to the following three areas: general characteristics of services offered, friendliness of staff and infrastructure. A cluster analysis was performed to identify groups of users according to their level of satisfaction, and an ordinal logistic regression model was used to determine the associated factors. Fifty-three percent were satisfied with the services, 34.3% were fairly satisfied and 12.7% were dissatisfied. The main characteristics associated with a greater degree of satisfaction were being female, older and the head of household. The health system must address this growing population and ensure the development of quality care to meet their needs.

Se objetivó identificar grupos de usuarios según grado de satisfacción con la atención recibida en Módulos Gerontológicos, y determinar los principales factores asociados. Estudio transversal, muestra de 181 pacientes de los 36 módulos del Seguro Social de Trabajadores Estatales, en México. El nivel de satisfacción fue evaluado bajo tres aspectos: características generales de la atención recibida; amabilidad en el trato e infraestructura. Se realizó análisis de conglomerados para identificar grupos de pacientes según grado de satisfacción y un modelo de regresión logística ordinal para identificar factores asociados. Resultaron satisfechos con el servicio 53% de los pacientes; medianamente satisfechos 34,3% e insatisfechos 12,7%. Los principales factores asociados a mayor grado de satisfacción fueron: ser mujer, mayor edad, ser jefe/a de familia. El sistema de salud debe dirigir su atención a este grupo poblacional creciente, e incentivar el desarrollo de una atención calificada que contemple sus necesidades.

Participación social y calidad en los servicios de salud: la experiencia del aval ciudadano en México / Social participation and quality of health care: the experience of citizens' health representatives in Mexico / Participação social e qualidade nos serviços de saúde: a experiência do aval ciudadano no México

OBJETIVO: Analizar la experiencia del aval ciudadano en el sistema de salud mexicano en la mejora de los servicios de salud. METODOS: Estudio de corte cualitativo en ocho estados de México en 2008. Se evaluaron diferentes aspectos del programa nacional para mejorar la calidad de los servicios de salud. Se compara la estrategia de México con otras experiencias en América Latina. RESULTADOS: Se exponen los avances y problemas del funcionamiento del aval ciudadano, figura que promueve la participación social en salud de la población. CONCLUSIONES: El aval ciudadano es una figura con gran potencial para representar a los usuarios en los servicios de salud y transmitir sus demandas de mejora de la calidad de la atención médica.

OBJECTIVE: This article describes the experience of the aval ciudadano "Citizens' Representative" (CR) in improving the Mexican health care system. METHODS: This is a qualitative study which took place in eight Mexican states in 2008. It evaluates different aspects of a nationwide program to increase the quality of health care services (National Crusade for Quality in Health Services). The Mexican strategy is compared with experiences in other Latin American countries. RESULTS: In this paper, there is the description of achievements and problems encountered by the CR in promoting social participation in the health of the population. CONCLUSIONS: The CR has great influence when representing health service users and passing on their demands for improvements to health care quality.

OBJETIVO: Analisar a experiência do aval ciudadano (reforço cidadão) no sistema de saúde mexicano na melhora dos serviços de saúde. MÉTODOS: Estudo de coorte qualitativo em oito estados mexicanos, em 2008. Foram avaliados diferentes aspectos do programa nacional para melhora de qualidade nos serviços de saúde. Compara-se a estratégia no México com outras experiências na América Latina. RESULTADOS: Foram expostos os avanços e problemas de funcionamento do aval ciudadano (reforço cidadão), figura que promove a participação social na saúde da população. CONCLUSÕES: O aval ciudadano (reforço cidadão) é uma figura com grande potencial para representar os usuários dos serviços de saúde e transmitir suas exigências de melhorias na qualidade da atenção médica.

[Fund for Protection against Catastrophic Expenses]. / El Fondo de Protección contra Gastos Catastróficos: tendencia, evolución y operación.

OBJECTIVE: To document the status of operational and managerial processes of the Fund for Protection against Catastrophic Expenses (FPGC), as well as to describe its evolution, and to explore the relationship between covered diseases and the Mexican health profile. MATERIAL AND METHODS: This is a joint management study, which included a qualitative and a quantitative phase. We conducted semi-structured interviews with key informants. We also analyzed the records of CNPSS, the hospital discharge and mortality data bases. RESULTS: Fifty two percent of the states take twice as long to report and validate the cases. From 2004-2009 the FPGC increased its coverage from 6 to 49 interventions, that means a spending increase of 2 306.4% in nominal terms and 1 659.3% in real terms. The HIV/AIDS was the intervention prioritized with 39.3% and Mexico City had the highest proportion of expenditure (25.1%). A few diseases included in the health profile are covered by the FPGC. CONCLUSIONS: The review of the inclusion criteria of diseases is urgent, so as to cover diseases of epidemiological importance.

El Fondo de Protección contra Gastos Catastróficos: tendencia, evolución y operación / Fund for Protection against Catastrophic Expenses

OBJETIVO. Documentar los procesos operativos y de gestión del Fondo de Protección contra Gastos Catastróficos (FPGC), evolución y distribución del gasto y explorar semejanza entre padecimientos cubiertos y perfil epidemiológico. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS. Estudio mixto, de naturaleza gerencial, que incluyó entrevistas semiestructuradas, revisión de bases de datos de la Comisión Nacional de Protección Social en Salud (CNPSS), egresos hospitalarios y mortalidad. RESULTADOS. El 52 por ciento de los estados tardan el doble del tiempo establecido para notificar y validar los casos. De 2004 a 2009 el FPGC pasó de 6 a 49 intervenciones, equivalente a un incremento nominal y real del gasto de 2 306.4 y 1 659.3 por ciento, respectivamente. La intervención priorizada fue VIH/SIDA con 39.3 por ciento; el Distrito Federal obtuvo la mayor proporción del gasto (25.1 por ciento). Algunas de las principales causas de mortalidad son cubiertas por el FPGC. CONCLUSIONES. La revisión de los criterios de inclusión de enfermedades y la adecuación del fondo para atender la demanda creciente es impostergable.

OBJECTIVE. To document the status of operational and managerial processes of the Fund for Protection against Catastrophic Expenses (FPGC), as well as to describe its evolution, and to explore the relationship between covered diseases and the Mexican health profile. MATERIAL AND METHODS. This is a joint management study, which included a qualitative and a quantitative phase. We conducted semi-structured interviews with key informants. We also analyzed the records of CNPSS, the hospital discharge and mortality data bases. RESULTS. Fifty two percent of the states take twice as long to report and validate the cases. From 2004-2009 the FPGC increased its coverage from 6 to 49 interventions, that means a spending increase of 2 306.4 percent in nominal terms and 1 659.3 percent in real terms. The HIV/AIDS was the intervention prioritized with 39.3 percent and Mexico City had the highest proportion of expenditure (25.1 percent). A few diseases included in the health profile are covered by the FPGC. CONCLUSIONS. The review of the inclusion criteria of diseases is urgent, so as to cover diseases of epidemiological importance.

Percepción de la calidad de la atención de los servicios de salud en México: perspectiva de los usuariosm / Quality of health services in Mexico as perceived by users

Objetivo. Describir la percepción de la calidad de la atención recibida por los usuarios en servicios ambulatorios de salud de México y analizar su relación con algunas características predisponentes y habilitadoras de la población usuaria. Material y métodos. La información analizada parte de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud II de 1994, que levantó información de 3 324 usuarios que acuedieron a los servicios de salud en las dos últimas semanas previas a la encuesta. Resultados. Se encontró que 81.2 por ciento de los usuarios percibió que la atención recibida fue buena y 18.8 por ciento mala. Los principales motivos que definen la calidad como buena fueron: el trato personal (23.2 por ciento) y mejoría en salud (11.9 por ciento); en tanto que los motivos de mala calidad aludidos fueron: los largos tiempos de espera (23.7 por ciento) y la deficiencia en las acciones de revisión y diagnóstico (11.7 por ciento). Los que utilizaron servicios de seguridad social perciben 2.6 veces más frecuentemente mala calidad de atención que los que acudieron a servicios privados. Para los usuarios, la calidad está representada por las características del proceso de atención (44.8 por ciento), el resultado (21.3 por ciento), de la estructura (18.0 por ciento), y de la accesibilidad (15.7 por ciento). Los motivos más importantes por los cuales los usuarios no regresarían al mismo lugar de atención fueron: no lo antendieron bien (18.2 por ciento) y los largos tiempos de espera (11.8 por ciento). Conclusiones. Los resultados sugieren profundizar en el conocimiento de la perspectiva poblacional, y determinar la necesidad de implementar en los servicios de salud acciones para la mejoría continua de la calidad de la atención

Motivos de no vacunación: un análisis crítico de la literatura internacional, 1950-1990 / Motives for non-vaccination: critical review of the international literature, 1950-1990

En muchos países se reconoce que los programas de vacunación requieren del dominio de elementos técnicos y organizacionales para ser accesibles a las poblaciones. Uno de ellos ha sido menospreciado de manera importante: la participación de la población y las causas que la motivan. El presente trabajo analiza experiencias de diversos países, a partir de una revisión bibliográfica del período 1950-1990. Los resultados muestram que los estudios existentes varían en su enfoque metodológico y conceptual de acuerdo a la región del mundo en donde fueron realizados y de acuerdo al tipo de investigador. Este hecho se explica por el supuesto que existe en muchos investigadores de pensar que conocen a profundidad los determinantes ideológicos de la conducta de las culturas de las que son nativos. A partir de ello utilizan metodologías que apenas les permiten aproximarse a un nivel superficial del conocimiento de la realidad social para hacer inferencias de la respuesta de las poblaciones ante la oferta de las vacunas

Médico en riesgo? Análisis comparativo de tres paises / Physicians in danger? Comparative analysis of three countries

En los útimos años se han producido profundos cambios en los sistemas de salud en el mundo. A pesar de ello, la profesión médica ha mostrado tener una gran capacidad de adaptación que le ha permitido seguir controlando las características técnicas del proceso de trabajo, la decisión de los criterios para definir la salud y la enfermedad, y muchos de los cambios en la prestación de los servicios. Aquí se analizan comparativamente estos cambios en tres países: Estados Unidos, México y la Unión Soviética (antes y después de lo recientemente ocurrido en este último país).(AU)

Subempleo y desempleo entre los medicos de las areas urbanas de Mexico / Medical underemployment and unemployment in the urban areas in Mexico

Este articulo presenta los resultados de una investigación sobre el empleo médico en México. La información se obtuvo mediante una encuesta a una muestra representativa de médicos en las 16 principales ciudades de México, en la cual se logró una tasa de respuesta de 97 por ciento. Los datos muestran que la subocupadán (9.4%) y la desocupación (7.5%) médica son fenómenos de considerable magnitud que deben analizarse a la luz de diferentes criterios, como son la relación entre el nivel de educación formal alcanzada y la actividad desempeñada (criterio cualitativo) y el rendimiento, medido a través del número de pacientes atendidos por unidad de tiempo (criterio cuantitativo). Se sugieren algunas medidas para profundizar en el problema y buscar su modificación