Probiotics may alleviate intestinal damage induced by cardiopulmonary bypass in children.

OBJECTIVES: Intestinal ischaemia-reperfusion injury induced by cardiopulmonary bypass causes intestinal epithelial barrier dysfunction, leading to dysbiosis and bacterial translocation. We conducted a randomized prospective study with 2 objectives: (i) to investigate epithelial barrier dysfunction and bacterial translocation induced by cardiopulmonary bypass and changes in the gut microbiota and (ii) to verify whether probiotics can improve these conditions. METHODS: Between 2019 and 2020, patients 0-15 years old scheduled to undergo cardiac surgery using cardiopulmonary bypass were enrolled and randomly allocated to 2 groups: the intervention group received probiotics and the control group did not receive probiotics. We analysed the microbiota in faeces and blood, organic acid concentrations in faeces, plasma intestinal fatty acid-binding protein and immunological responses. RESULTS: Eighty-two patients were enrolled in this study. The characteristics of the patients were similar in both groups. The total number of obligate anaerobes was higher in the intervention group than in the control group after postoperative day 7. We identified 4 clusters within the perioperative gut microbiota, and cluster changes showed a corrective effect of probiotics on dysbiosis after postoperative day 7. Organic acid concentrations in faeces, incidence of bacterial translocation, intestinal fatty acid-binding protein levels and immunological responses, except for interleukin -17A, were not markedly different between the 2 groups. CONCLUSIONS: Administration of probiotics was able to correct dysbiosis but did not sufficiently alleviate the intestinal damage induced by cardiopulmonary bypass. More effective methods should be examined to prevent disturbances induced by cardiac surgery using cardiopulmonary bypass. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: https://center6.umin.ac.jp/cgi-open-bin/ctr_e/ctr_view.cgi?recptno=R000037174 UMIN000035556.

Voriconazole injection may induce delayed methotrexate excretion: a case report and experimental study.

BACKGROUND: We report a case of delayed excretion of methotrexate (MTX) in a pediatric patient on high-dose MTX therapy in response to a change in the concomitant dosage of voriconazole from oral to intravenous. As the intravenous, but not the oral formulation of voriconazole includes sulfobutylether-ß-cyclodextrin (SBECD), which has an anionic residue, we hypothesized that SBECD inhibits the renal excretion of anionic compounds. METHODS: We evaluated the inhibitory effects of SBECD on renal excretion of phenolsulfonphthalein (PSP), which is eliminated in urine via organic anion transport systems. PSP was administered intravenously to rats at 2.5 and 25 mg/kg with or without SBECD pretreatment (320 mg/kg). RESULTS: The plasma concentration of PSP at the dosage of 2.5 mg/kg were comparable between control and SBECD groups. On the other hand, at 25 mg/kg the elimination of PSP was delayed. The clearance of PSP at the dosage of 25 mg/kg was 9.71 ± 1.65 and 4.13 ± 0.76 mL/min/kg in control and SBECD groups, respectively (p < 0.05). This suggested that SBECD partly inhibits the renal excretion of anionic drugs. CONCLUSION: The present case report discusses the delayed elimination of MTX in high dose therapy and possible mechanism involving SBECD as an excipient in concomitant drugs. It seems better to avoid choosing injection containing SBECD for patients undergoing HD-MTX treatment. Further studies are needed to confirm the inhibitory effects of SBECD on the renal excretion of MTX, especially in high-dose regimens.

MicroRNA-145-5p and microRNA-320a encapsulated in endothelial microparticles contribute to the progression of vasculitis in acute Kawasaki Disease.

Kawasaki Disease (KD) is an acute inflammatory disease that takes the form of systemic vasculitis. Endothelial microparticles (EMPs) have been recognized as an important transcellular delivery system. We hypothesized whether EMPs are involved in vasculitis in acute KD. Fifty patients with acute KD were enrolled, divided into two subgroups: those with coronary artery lesions (CAL) (n = 5) and those without CAL (NCAL) (n = 45). EMPs were measured using flow cytometry, and microRNA (miR) expression profiling was performed by microRNA array. The percentage of EMPs in acute KD was significantly higher than in controls (P < 0.0001). EMPs in patients with CAL rapidly increased after the initial treatment, and was significantly higher than those in NCAL (P < 0.001). In patients with CAL, we identified 2 specific miRs encapsulated in EMPs, hsa-miR-145-5p and hsa-miR-320a, which are predicted to affect monocyte function using in silico analysis, and were demonstrated to upregulate inflammatory cytokine mRNAs in THP-1 monocytes. In situ hybridization confirmed that hsa-miR-145-5p was preferentially expressed in CAL. EMPs may serve as a sensitive marker for the severity of vasculitis in acute KD. Moreover, these 2 specific miRs encapsulated in EMPs might be involved in inflammatory cytokine regulation and the pathogenesis of vasculitis in acute KD.

Abnormal hematopoiesis and autoimmunity in human subjects with germline IKZF1 mutations.

BACKGROUND: Ikaros, which is encoded by IKZF1, is a transcriptional factor that play a critical role in hematopoiesis. Somatic IKZF1 alterations are known to be involved in the pathogenesis of leukemia in human subjects. Recently, immunodeficiency caused by germline IKZF1 mutation has been described. OBJECTIVE: We sought to describe the clinical and immunologic phenotypes of Japanese patients with heterozygous IKZF1 mutations. METHODS: We performed whole-exome sequencing in patients from a dysgammaglobulinemia or autoimmune disease cohort and used a candidate gene approach in 4 patients. Functional and laboratory studies, including detailed lymphopoiesis/hematopoiesis analysis in the bone marrow, were performed. RESULTS: Nine patients from 6 unrelated families were identified to have heterozygous germline mutations in IKZF1. Age of onset was 0 to 20 years (mean, 7.4 years). Eight of 9 patients presented with dysgammaglobulinemia accompanied by B-cell deficiency. Four of 9 patients had autoimmune disease, including immune thrombocytopenic purpura, IgA vasculitis, and systemic lupus erythematosus. Nonautoimmune pancytopenia was observed in 1 patient. All of the mutant Ikaros protein demonstrated impaired DNA binding to the target sequence and abnormal diffuse nuclear localization. Flow cytometric analysis of bone marrow revealed reduced levels of common lymphoid progenitors and normal development of pro-B to pre-B cells. CONCLUSIONS: Germline heterozygous IKZF1 mutations cause dysgammaglobulinemia; hematologic abnormalities, including B-cell defect; and autoimmune diseases.

RAG1 deficiency may present clinically as selective IgA deficiency.

BACKGROUND: Recombination-activating gene (RAG) 1 and 2 deficiency is seen in patients with severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) and Omenn syndrome. However, the spectrum of the disease has recently expanded to include a milder phenotype. OBJECTIVE: We analyzed a 4-year-old boy who was initially given the diagnosis of selective immunoglobulin A deficiency (SIgAD) based on immunoglobulin serum levels without any opportunistic infections, rashes, hepatosplenomegaly, autoimmunity or granulomas. The patient was found to be infected with varicella zoster; however, the clinical course was not serious. He produced antiviral antibodies. METHODS: We performed lymphocyte phenotyping, quantification of T cell receptor excision circles (TRECs) and kappa deleting recombination excision circles (KRECs), an analysis of target sequences of RAG1 and 2, a whole-genome SNP array, an in vitro V(D)J recombination assay, a spectratype analysis of the CDR3 region and a flow cytometric analysis of the bone marrow. RESULTS: Lymphocyte phenotyping demonstrated that the ratio of CD4+ to CD8+ T cells was inverted and the majority of CD4+T cells expressed CD45RO antigens in addition to the almost complete lack of B cells. Furthermore, both TRECs and KRECs were absent. Targeted DNA sequencing and SNP array revealed that the patient carried a deletion of RAG1 and RAG2 genes on the paternally-derived chromosome 11, and two maternally-derived novel RAG1 missense mutations (E455K, R764H). In vitro analysis of recombination activity showed that both RAG1 mutant proteins had low, but residual function. CONCLUSIONS: The current case further expands the phenotypic spectrum of mild presentations of RAG deficiency, and suggests that TRECs and KRECs are useful markers for detecting hidden severe, as well as mild, cases.

Advances in Understanding the Pathogenesis of Epstein-Barr Virus-Associated Lymphoproliferative Disorders.

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) was discovered 50 years ago from an african Burkitt lymphoma cell line. EBV-associated lymphoproliferative disorders (LPDs) are life- threatening diseases, especially in children. In this article, we review EBV-associated LPDs, especially in the area of primary immunodeficiency disease (PID). We searched PubMed for publications with key words including EBV infection, lymphoma, LPDs and PID, and selected the manuscripts written in English that we judged to be relevant to the topic of this review.On the basis of the data in the literature, we grouped the EBV-associated LPDs into four categories: nonmalignant disease, malignant disease, acquired immunodeficiency disease and PID. Each category has its own risk factor for LPD development. EBV-associated LPD is a complex disease, creating new challenges for diagnosis and treatment.

The long elusive IgM Fc receptor, FcµR.

IgM exists as both a monomer on the surface of B cells and a pentamer secreted by plasma cells. Both pre-immune "natural" and antigen-induced "immune" IgM antibodies are important for protective immunity and for immune regulation of autoimmune processes by recognizing pathogens and self-antigens. Effector proteins interacting with the Fc portion of IgM, such as complement and complement receptors, have thus far been proposed but fail to fully account for the IgM-mediated protection and regulation. A major reason for this deficit in our understanding of IgM function seems to be lack of data on a long elusive Fc receptor for IgM (FcµR). We have recently identified a bona fide FcµR in both humans and mice. In this article we briefly review what we have learned so far about FcµR.

Characterization of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-infected cells in EBV-associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in two patients with X-linked lymphoproliferative syndrome type 1 and type 2.

BACKGROUND: X-linked lymphoproliferative syndrome (XLP) is a rare inherited immunodeficiency by an extreme vulnerability to Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection, frequently resulting in hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH). XLP are now divided into type 1 (XLP-1) and type 2 (XLP-2), which are caused by mutations of SH2D1A/SLAM-associated protein (SAP) and X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein (XIAP) genes, respectively. The diagnosis of XLP in individuals with EBV-associated HLH (EBV-HLH) is generally difficult because they show basically similar symptoms to sporadic EBV-HLH. Although EBV-infected cells in sporadic EBV-HLH are known to be mainly in CD8+ T cells, the cell-type of EBV-infected cells in EBV-HLH seen in XLP patients remains undetermined. METHODS: EBV-infected cells in two patients (XLP-1 and XLP-2) presenting EBV-HLH were evaluated by in EBER-1 in situ hybridization or quantitative PCR methods. RESULTS: Both XLP patients showed that the dominant population of EBV-infected cells was CD19+ B cells, whereas EBV-infected CD8+ T cells were very few. CONCLUSIONS: In XLP-related EBV-HLH, EBV-infected cells appear to be predominantly B cells. B cell directed therapy such as rituximab may be a valuable option in the treatment of EBV-HLH in XLP patients.

Clinical and genetic characteristics of XIAP deficiency in Japan.

Deficiency of X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis (XIAP) caused by XIAP/BIRC4 gene mutations is an inherited immune defect recognized as X-linked lymphoproliferative syndrome type 2. This disease is mainly observed in patients with hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) often associated with Epstein-Barr virus infection. We described nine Japanese patients from six unrelated families with XIAP deficiency and studied XIAP protein expression, XIAP gene analysis, invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cell counts, and the cytotoxic activity of CD8(+) alloantigen-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Of the nine patients, eight patients presented with symptoms in infancy or early childhood. Five patients presented with recurrent HLH, one of whom had severe HLH and died after cord blood transplantation. One patient presented with colitis, as did another patient's maternal uncle, who died of colitis at 4 years of age prior to diagnosis with XIAP deficiency. Interestingly, a 17-year-old patient was asymptomatic, while his younger brother suffered from recurrent HLH and EBV infection. Seven out of eight patients showed decreased XIAP protein expression. iNKT cells from patients with XIAP deficiency were significantly decreased as compared with age-matched healthy controls. These results in our Japanese cohort are compatible with previous studies, confirming the clinical characteristics of XIAP deficiency.

Clinical significance of cloned expansion and CD5 down-regulation in Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV)-infected CD8+ T lymphocytes in EBV-associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis.

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is the pathogen that most commonly triggers infection-associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) and ectopically infects CD8(+) T cells in EBV-associated HLH (EBV-HLH). We recently described an EBV-HLH patient who had a clonally expanded population of EBV-infected CD8(+) T cells with CD5 down-regulation. To determine whether this finding could serve as a useful marker for EBV-HLH, we investigated 5 additional patients. We found a significant increase in the subpopulation of CD8(+) T cells with CD5 down-regulation and bright human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-DR expression in all patients with EBV-HLH but not in patients with infectious mononucleosis or in control subjects. Such T cells were frequently found to be larger cells that stained positive for a specific T cell receptor VB. We also demonstrated that those cells were the major cellular target of EBV, and their numbers progressively declined in parallel with the serum ferritin levels. All together, our findings reveal the immunophenotypic characteristics of EBV-infected CD8(+) T cells and may provide a valuable tool for the diagnosis of EBV-HLH.