Lentivector Producer Cell Lines with Stably Expressed Vesiculovirus Envelopes.

Retroviral and lentiviral vectors often use the envelope G protein from the vesicular stomatitis virus Indiana strain (VSVind.G). However, lentivector producer cell lines that stably express VSVind.G have not been reported, presumably because of its cytotoxicity, preventing simple scale-up of vector production. Interestingly, we showed that VSVind.G and other vesiculovirus G from the VSV New Jersey strain (VSVnj), Cocal virus (COCV), and Piry virus (PIRYV) could be constitutively expressed and supported lentivector production for up to 10 weeks. All G-enveloped particles were robust, allowing concentration and freeze-thawing. COCV.G and PIRYV.G were resistant to complement inactivation, and, using chimeras between VSVind.G and COCV.G, the determinant for complement inactivation of VSVind.G was mapped to amino acid residues 136-370. Clonal packaging cell lines using COCV.G could be generated; however, during attempts to establish LV producer cells, vector superinfection was observed following the introduction of a lentivector genome. This could be prevented by culturing the cells with the antiviral drug nevirapine. As an alternative countermeasure, we demonstrated that functional lentivectors could be reconstituted by admixing supernatant from stable cells producing unenveloped virus with supernatant containing envelopes harvested from cells stably expressing VSVind.G, COCV.G, or PIRYV.G.

Atrophin controls developmental signaling pathways via interactions with Trithorax-like.

Mutations in human Atrophin1, a transcriptional corepressor, cause dentatorubral-pallidoluysian atrophy, a neurodegenerative disease. Drosophila Atrophin (Atro) mutants display many phenotypes, including neurodegeneration, segmentation, patterning and planar polarity defects. Despite Atro's critical role in development and disease, relatively little is known about Atro's binding partners and downstream targets. We present the first genomic analysis of Atro using ChIP-seq against endogenous Atro. ChIP-seq identified 1300 potential direct targets of Atro including engrailed, and components of the Dpp and Notch signaling pathways. We show that Atro regulates Dpp and Notch signaling in larval imaginal discs, at least partially via regulation of thickveins and fringe. In addition, bioinformatics analyses, sequential ChIP and coimmunoprecipitation experiments reveal that Atro interacts with the Drosophila GAGA Factor, Trithorax-like (Trl), and they bind to the same loci simultaneously. Phenotypic analyses of Trl and Atro clones suggest that Atro is required to modulate the transcription activation by Trl in larval imaginal discs. Taken together, these data indicate that Atro is a major Trl cofactor that functions to moderate developmental gene transcription.

The transcription factor E4bp4/Nfil3 controls commitment to the NK lineage and directly regulates Eomes and Id2 expression.

The transcription factor E4bp4 (Nfil3) is essential for natural killer (NK) cell production. Here, we show that E4bp4 is required at the NK lineage commitment point when NK progenitors develop from common lymphoid progenitors (CLPs) and that E4bp4 must be expressed at the CLP stage for differentiation toward the NK lineage to occur. To elucidate the mechanism by which E4bp4 promotes NK development, we identified a central core of transcription factors that can rescue NK production from E4bp4(-/-) progenitors, suggesting that they act downstream of E4bp4. Among these were Eomes and Id2, which are expressed later in development than E4bp4. E4bp4 binds directly to the regulatory regions of both Eomes and Id2, promoting their transcription. We propose that E4bp4 is required for commitment to the NK lineage and promotes NK development by directly regulating the expression of the downstream transcription factors Eomes and Id2.

The transcription factor E4BP4 is not required for extramedullary pathways of NK cell development.

NK cells contribute to antitumor and antiviral immunosurveillance. Their development in the bone marrow (BM) requires the transcription factor E4BP4/NFIL3, but requirements in other organs are less well defined. In this study, we show that CD3(-)NK1.1(+)NKp46(+)CD122(+) NK cells of immature phenotype and expressing low eomesodermin levels are found in thymus, spleen, and liver of E4BP4-deficient mice, whereas numbers of mature, eomesodermin(high) conventional NK cells are drastically reduced. E4BP4-deficient CD44(+)CD25(-) double-negative 1 thymocytes efficiently develop in vitro into NK cells with kinetics, phenotype, and functionality similar to wild-type controls, whereas no NK cells develop from E4BP4-deficient BM precursors. In E4BP4/Rag-1 double-deficient (DKO) mice, NK cells resembling those in Rag-1-deficient controls are found in similar numbers in the thymus and liver. However, NK precursors are reduced in DKO BM, and no NK cells develop from DKO BM progenitors in vitro. DKO thymocyte precursors readily develop into NK cells, but DKO BM transfers into nude recipients and NK cells in E4BP4/Rag-1/IL-7 triple-KO mice indicated thymus-independent NK cell development. In the presence of T cells or E4BP4-sufficient NK cells, DKO NK cells have a selective disadvantage, and thymic and hepatic DKO NK cells show reduced survival when adoptively transferred into lymphopenic hosts. This correlates with higher apoptosis rates and lower responsiveness to IL-15 in vitro. In conclusion, we demonstrate E4BP4-independent development of NK cells of immature phenotype, reduced fitness, short t1/2, and potential extramedullary origin. Our data identify E4BP4-independent NK cell developmental pathways and a role for E4BP4 in NK cell homeostasis.

E4BP4: an unexpected player in the immune response.

Until recently, the basic leucine zipper transcription factor E4BP4 (also known as NFIL3) was of little interest to immunologists, being best known for its role in regulating circadian rhythm in chick pineal gland. However, characterisation of E4bp4(-/-) mice, independently generated in four different laboratories, has revealed roles for E4BP4 in diverse haematopoietic lineages. E4BP4 is essential for the development of NK cells and CD8α(+) conventional dendritic cells, and is also involved in macrophage activation, polarisation of CD4(+) T cell responses and B cell class switching to IgE. Here, we discuss the role of E4BP4 as a regulator of the immune response and highlight future questions for the field.