Posttranslational Regulation of O(6)-Methylguanine-DNA Methyltransferase (MGMT) and New Opportunities for Treatment of Brain Cancers.

O(6)-Methylguanine-DNA-methyltransferase (MGMT) is an antimutagenic DNA repair protein highly expressed in human brain tumors. Because MGMT repairs the mutagenic, carcinogenic and cytotoxic O(6)-alkylguanine adducts, including those generated by the clinically used anticancer alkylating agents, it has emerged as a central and rational target for overcoming tumor resistance to alkylating agents. Although the pseudosubstrates for MGMT [O(6)-benzylguanine, O(6)-(4- bromothenyl)guanine] have gained attention as powerful and clinically-relevant inhibitors, bone marrow suppression due to excessive alkylation damage has diminished this strategy. Our laboratory has been working on various posttranslational modifications of MGMT that affect its protein stability, DNA repair activity and response to oxidative stress. While these modifications greatly impact the physiological regulation of MGMT, they also highlight the opportunities for inactivating DNA repair and new drug discovery in this specific area. This review briefly describes the newer aspects of MGMT posttranslational regulation by ubiquitination, sumoylation and glutathionylation and reveals how the reactivity of the active site Cys145 can be exploited for potent inhibition and depletion of MGMT by thiol-reacting drugs such as the disulfiram and various dithiocarbamate derivatives. The possible repurposing of these nontoxic and safe drugs for improved therapy of pediatric and adult brain tumors is discussed.

Regulation of Nrf2-an update.

Nrf2:INrf2 (Keap1) are cellular sensors of oxidative and electrophilic stress. Nrf2 is a nuclear factor that controls the expression and coordinated induction of a battery of genes that encode detoxifying enzymes, drug transporters, antiapoptotic proteins, and proteasomes. In the basal state, Nrf2 is constantly degraded in the cytoplasm by its inhibitor, INrf2. INrf2 functions as an adapter for Cul3/Rbx1 E3 ubiquitin ligase-mediated degradation of Nrf2. Chemicals, including antioxidants, tocopherols including α-tocopherol (vitamin E), and phytochemicals, and radiation antagonize the Nrf2:INrf2 interaction and lead to the stabilization and activation of Nrf2. The signaling events involve preinduction, induction, and postinduction responses that tightly control Nrf2 activation and repression back to the basal state. Oxidative/electrophilic signals activate unknown tyrosine kinases in a preinduction response that phosphorylates specific residues on Nrf2 negative regulators, INrf2, Fyn, and Bach1, leading to their nuclear export, ubiquitination, and degradation. This prepares nuclei for unhindered import of Nrf2. Oxidative/electrophilic modification of INrf2 cysteine 151 followed by PKC phosphorylation of Nrf2 serine 40 in the induction response results in the escape or release of Nrf2 from INrf2. Nrf2 is thus stabilized and translocates to the nucleus, resulting in a coordinated activation of gene expression. This is followed by a postinduction response that controls the "switching off" of Nrf2-activated gene expression. GSK3ß, under the control of AKT and PI3K, phosphorylates Fyn, leading to Fyn nuclear localization. Fyn phosphorylates Nrf2 Y568, resulting in nuclear export and degradation of Nrf2. The activation and repression of Nrf2 provide protection against oxidative/electrophilic stress and associated diseases, including cancer. However, deregulation of INrf2 and Nrf2 due to mutations may lead to nuclear accumulation of Nrf2 that reduces apoptosis and promotes oncogenesis and drug resistance.

Oncogene PKCε controls INrf2-Nrf2 interaction in normal and cancer cells through phosphorylation of INrf2.

The INrf2 (Keap1)-Nrf2 cell sensor complex has a crucial role in protection against chemical- and radiation-induced oxidative stress and cellular transformation. INrf2, in association with Cul3-Rbx1, ubiquitylates and degrades Nrf2. Exposure to stressors leads to stabilization of Nrf2 and the coordinated activation of cytoprotective proteins and cellular protection. However, the molecular signal(s) that regulate control of Nrf2 by INrf2 remain elusive. In this report, we demonstrate that phosphorylation of INrf2 at Ser599 and Ser602 by the oncoprotein PKCε is essential for INrf2-Nrf2 interaction, and the subsequent ubiquitylation and degradation of Nrf2. Inhibition of PKCε, knockdown of PKCε and the INrf2S602A mutant all failed to phosphorylate INrf2, leading to loss of the INrf2-Nrf2 interaction, Nrf2 degradation and enhanced cytoprotection and drug resistance. Molecular modeling analyses revealed that phosphorylation of S599 exposes the deeply buried S602 for phosphorylation and enhanced INrf2-Nrf2 interaction. Analysis of human lung and liver tumor protein arrays showed lower PKCε and higher Nrf2 levels, which presumably promoted cancer cell survival and drug resistance. In conclusion, phosphorylation of INrf2 by PKCε leads to regulation of Nrf2, with significant implications for the survival of cancer cells, which often express lower levels of PKCε.

Nrf2-induced antiapoptotic Bcl-xL protein enhances cell survival and drug resistance.

Nuclear transcription factor Nrf2 binds with the antioxidant-response element (ARE) in the promoter regions of cytoprotective genes, leading to their increased expression and cellular protection. In this study, we investigated the role of Nrf2 in the regulation of antiapoptotic Bcl-xL protein and its effect on cellular apoptosis. Treatment of mouse Hepa-1 cells with the antioxidant tert-butylhydroquinone led to the induction of Bcl-xL gene expression. Promoter mutagenesis, transfection, and chromatin immunoprecipitation assays identified an ARE between nucleotides -608 and -600 in the forward strand of the proximal Bcl-xL promoter that bound to Nrf2 and led to increased Bcl-xL gene expression. In addition, short interfering RNA (siRNA) inhibition and overexpression of Nrf2 led to a respective decrease and increase in Bcl-xL gene expression. These results implicated Nrf2 in the regulation of expression and induction of Bcl-xL protein. Nrf2-mediated expression of Bcl-xL protein downregulated Bax and decreased caspase 3/7 activity. SiRNA inhibition of both Nrf2 and Bcl-xL increased the susceptibility of cancer cells to etoposide-mediated cell death and reduced cell survival. Moreover, dysfunctional/mutant INrf2 (inhibitor of Nrf2) in human lung cancer cells failed to degrade Nrf2, resulting in increased Bcl-xL levels and increased cell survival. These data provide the first evidence of Nrf2 in the control of Bcl-xL expression and apoptotic cell death with implications for antioxidant protection, survival of cancer cells, and drug resistance.

Antioxidant-induced INrf2 (Keap1) tyrosine 85 phosphorylation controls the nuclear export and degradation of the INrf2-Cul3-Rbx1 complex to allow normal Nrf2 activation and repression.

INrf2 (Keap1) serves as a negative regulator of the cytoprotective transcription factor Nrf2. At basal levels, INrf2 functions as a substrate adaptor to sequester Nrf2 into the Cul3-Rbx1 E3 ligase complex for ubiquitylation and proteasomal degradation. In response to antioxidants, Nrf2 is released from the INrf2-Cul3-Rbx1 complex and translocates into the nucleus, where it activates ARE-mediated cytoprotective gene expression. The present studies demonstrate that INrf2, Cul3 and Rbx1 export out of the nucleus and are degraded during the early or pre-induction response to antioxidants. Mutation of Tyr85 in INrf2 stymied the nuclear export of INrf2, suggesting that tyrosine phosphorylation controls the pre-induction nuclear export and degradation in response to antioxidants. The nuclear export of Cul3-Rbx1 were also blocked when INrf2Tyr85 was mutated, suggesting that INrf2-Cul3-Rbx1 undergo nuclear export as a complex. INrf2 siRNA also inhibited the nuclear export of Cul3-Rbx1, confirming that Cul3-Rbx1 requires INrf2 for nuclear export. Newly synthesized INrf2-Cul3-Rbx1 is imported back into the nucleus during the post-induction period to ubiquitylate and degrade Nrf2. Mutation of INrf2Tyr85 had no effect on activation of Nrf2 but led to nuclear accumulation of Nrf2 during the post-induction period owing to reduced export and degradation of Nrf2. Our results also showed that nuclear export and degradation followed by the new synthesis of INrf2-Cul3-Rbx1 controls the cellular abundance of the proteins during different phases of antioxidant responses. In conclusion, the early or pre-induction nuclear export of INrf2 in response to antioxidants is controlled by tyrosine phosphorylation, whereas the nuclear export of Cul3 and Rbx1 is controlled by INrf2, allowing normal activation or repression of Nrf2.

Nrf2 protein up-regulates antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2 and prevents cellular apoptosis.

Nuclear transcription factor Nrf2 regulates the expression and coordinated induction of a battery of genes encoding cytoprotective and drug transporter proteins in response to chemical and radiation stress. This leads to reduced apoptosis, enhanced cell survival, and increased drug resistance. In this study, we investigated the role of Nrf2 in up-regulation of antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2 and its contribution to stress-induced apoptosis and cell survival. Exposure of mouse hepatoma (Hepa-1) and human hepatoblastoma (HepG2) cells to antioxidant tert-butylhydroquinone led to induction of Bcl-2. Mutagenesis and transfection assays identified an antioxidant response element between nucleotides -3148 and -3140 on the reverse strand of the Bcl-2 gene promoter that was essential for activation of Bcl-2 gene expression. Band/supershift and ChIP assays demonstrated binding of Nrf2 to Bcl-2 antioxidant response element. Alterations in Nrf2 led to altered Bcl-2 induction and cellular apoptosis. Moreover, dysfunctional/mutant inhibitor of Nrf2 (INrf2) in human lung cancer cells failed to degrade Nrf2, resulting in an increased Bcl-2 level and decreased etoposide- and UV/γ radiation-mediated DNA fragmentation. In addition, siRNA-mediated down-regulation of Nrf2 also led to decreased apoptosis and increased cell survival. Furthermore, the specific knockdown of Bcl-2 in Nrf2-activated tumor cells led to increased etoposide-induced apoptosis and decreased cell survival and growth/proliferation. These data provide the first evidence of Nrf2 in control of Bcl-2 expression and apoptotic cell death with implications in antioxidant protection, survival of cancer cells, and drug resistance.

Inhibitor of Nrf2 (INrf2 or Keap1) protein degrades Bcl-xL via phosphoglycerate mutase 5 and controls cellular apoptosis.

INrf2 (Keap1) is an adaptor protein that facilitates INrf2-Cul3-Rbx1-mediated ubiquitination/degradation of Nrf2, a master regulator of cytoprotective gene expression. Here, we present evidence that members of the phosphoglycerate mutase family 5 (PGAM5) proteins are involved in the INrf2-mediated ubiquitination/degradation of anti-apoptotic factor Bcl-xL. Mass spectrometry and co-immunoprecipitation assays revealed that INrf2, through its DGR domain, interacts with PGAM5, which in turn interacts with anti-apoptotic Bcl-xL protein. INrf2-Cul3-Rbx1 complex facilitates ubiquitination and degradation of both PGAM5 and Bcl-xL. Overexpression of PGAM5 protein increased INrf2-mediated degradation of Bcl-xL, whereas knocking down PGAM5 by siRNA decreased INrf2 degradation of Bcl-xL, resulting in increased stability of Bcl-xL. Mutation of PGMA5-E79A/S80A abolished INrf2/PGAM5/Bcl-xL interaction. Therefore, PGAM5 protein acts as a bridge between INrf2 and Bcl-xL interaction. Further studies showed that overexpression of INrf2 enhanced degradation of PGAM5-Bcl-xL complex, led to etoposide-mediated accumulation of Bax, increased release of cytochrome c from mitochondria, activated caspase-3/7, and enhanced DNA fragmentation and apoptosis. In addition, antioxidant (tert-butylhydroquinone) treatment destabilized the Nrf2-INrf2-PGAM5-Bcl-xL complex, which resulted in release of Nrf2 in cytosol and mitochondria, release of Bcl-xL in mitochondria, increase in Bcl-xL heterodimerization with Bax in mitochondria, and reduced cellular apoptosis. These data provide the first evidence that INrf2 controls Bcl-xL via PGAM5 and controls cellular apoptosis.

Src subfamily kinases regulate nuclear export and degradation of transcription factor Nrf2 to switch off Nrf2-mediated antioxidant activation of cytoprotective gene expression.

Nrf2 (NF-E2-related factor 2) is a nuclear transcription factor that in response to chemical and radiation stress regulates coordinated induction of a battery of cytoprotective gene expressions leading to cellular protection. In this study, we investigated the role of Src kinases in the regulation of Nrf2 and downstream signaling. siRNA-mediated inhibition of Fyn, Src, Yes, and Fgr, but not Lyn, in mouse hepatoma Hepa-1 cells, led to nuclear accumulation of Nrf2 and up-regulation of Nrf2 downstream gene expression. Mouse embryonic fibroblasts with combined deficiency of Fyn/Src/Yes/Fgr supported results from siRNA. In addition, steady-state overexpression of Fyn, Src, and Yes phosphorylated Nrf2Tyr568 that triggered nuclear export and degradation of Nrf2 and down-regulation of Nrf2 downstream gene expression. Exposure of cells to antioxidant, oxidant, or UV radiation increased nuclear import of Fyn, Src, and Yes kinases, which phosphorylated Nrf2Tyr568 resulting in nuclear export and degradation of Nrf2. Further analysis revealed that stress-activated GSK3ß acted upstream to the Src kinases and phosphorylated the Src kinases, leading to their nuclear localization and Nrf2 phosphorylation. The overexpression of Src kinases in Hepa-1 cells led to decreased Nrf2, increased apoptosis, and decreased cell survival. Mouse embryonic fibroblasts deficient in Src kinases showed nuclear accumulation of Nrf2, induction of Nrf2 and downstream gene expression, reduced apoptosis, and increased cell survival. The studies together demonstrate that Src kinases play a critical role in nuclear export and degradation of Nrf2, thereby providing a negative feedback mechanism to switch off Nrf2 activation and restore normal cellular homeostasis.

Hsp90 interaction with INrf2(Keap1) mediates stress-induced Nrf2 activation.

INrf2(Keap1) functions as an adapter for Cul3/Rbx1-mediated degradation of Nrf2. In response to stress, Nrf2 is released from INrf2 and translocates inside the nucleus leading to activation of cytoprotective proteins critical in protection against adverse effects including cancer. We demonstrate here a novel role of heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) in control of the INrf2 and Nrf2 activation. Hsp90 interacted with INrf2 that leds to stabilization of INrf2 during heat shock stress. Domain mapping showed the requirement of INrf2-NTR and the Hsp90-CLD region for interaction of Hsp90 with INrf2. Heat shock and antioxidants induced Hsp90, and casein kinase 2 (CK2) phosphorylated INrf2Thr55. This led to increased Hsp90-INrf2 interaction, dissociation of the Rbx1/Cul3·INrf2·Nrf2 complex, and activation of Nrf2. Inhibitors of CK2 and Hsp90, and mutation of INrf2Thr55 abolished the Hsp90-INrf2 interaction and downstream signaling. INrf2 is released from Hsp90 once the heat shock or antioxidant stress subsidized, thereby allowing INrf2 to interact with Nrf2 and facilitate Nrf2 ubiquitination and degradation. The results together demonstrate a novel role for the stress-induced Hsp90-INrf2 interaction in regulation of Nrf2 activation and induction of cytoprotective proteins.

Nrf2 signaling and cell survival.

Nrf2:INrf2 acts as a sensor for oxidative/electrophilic stress. INrf2 serves as an adaptor to link Nrf2 to the ubiquitin ligase Cul3-Rbx1 complex that ubiquitinate and degrade Nrf2. Under basal conditions, cytosolic INrf2/Cul3-Rbx1 is constantly degrading Nrf2. When a cell encounters stress Nrf2 dissociates from the INrf2 and translocates into the nucleus. Oxidative/electrophilic stress induced modification of INrf2Cysteine151 and/or protein kinase C (PKC)-mediated phosphorylation of Nrf2Serine40 controls Nrf2 release from INrf2 followed by stabilization and nuclear translocation of Nrf2. Nrf2 binds to the antioxidant response element (ARE) and activates a myriad of genes that protect cells against oxidative/electrophilic stress and neoplasia. A delayed response of oxidative/electrophilic stress activates GSK-3beta that phosphorylates Fyn at unknown threonine residue(s). Phosphorylated Fyn translocates to the nucleus and phosphorylates Nrf2Tyrosine568 that leads to nuclear export and degradation of Nrf2. Prothymosin-alpha mediated nuclear translocation of INrf2 also degrades nuclear Nrf2. The degradation of Nrf2 both in cytosol and nuclear compartments rapidly brings down its levels to normal resulting in suppression of Nrf2 downstream gene expression. An auto-regulatory loop between Nrf2 and INrf2 controls their cellular abundance. Nrf2 regulates INrf2 by controlling its transcription, and INrf2 controls Nrf2 by degrading it. In conclusion, switching on and off of Nrf2 combined with promoting an auto-regulatory loop between them regulates activation/deactivation of defensive genes leading to protection of cells against adverse effects of oxidative and electrophilic stress and promote cell survival.

Antioxidant-induced modification of INrf2 cysteine 151 and PKC-delta-mediated phosphorylation of Nrf2 serine 40 are both required for stabilization and nuclear translocation of Nrf2 and increased drug resistance.

Antioxidants cause dissociation of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) from inhibitor of Nrf2 (INrf2) and so Nrf2:INrf2 can serve as a sensor of oxidative stress. Nrf2 translocates to the nucleus, binds to antioxidant response element (ARE) and activates defensive gene expression, which protects cells. Controversies exist regarding the role of antioxidant-induced modification of INrf2 cysteine 151 or protein kinase C (PKC)-mediated phosphorylation of Nrf2 serine 40 in the release of Nrf2 from INrf2. In addition, the PKC isoform that phosphorylates Nrf2S40 remains unknown. Here, we demonstrate that antioxidant-induced PKC-delta-mediated phosphorylation of Nrf2S40 leads to release of Nrf2 from INrf2. This was evident from specific chemical inhibitors of PKC isoenzymes in reporter assays, in vitro kinase assays with purified Nrf2 and PKC isoenzymes, in vivo analysis with dominant-negative mutants and siRNA against PKC isoforms, use of PKC-delta(+/+) and PKC-delta(-/-) cells, and use of Nrf2S40 phospho-specific antibody. The studies also showed that antioxidant-induced INrf2C151 modification was insufficient for the dissociation of Nrf2 from INrf2. PKC-delta-mediated Nrf2S40 phosphorylation was also required. Nrf2 and mutant Nrf2S40A both bind to INrf2. However, antioxidant treatment led to release of Nrf2 but not Nrf2S40A from INrf2. In addition, Nrf2 and mutant Nrf2S40A both failed to dissociate from mutant INrf2C151A. Furthermore, antioxidant-induced ubiquitylation of INrf2 in PKC-delta(+/+) and PKC-delta(-/-) cells occurred, but Nrf2 failed to be released in PKC-delta(-/-) cells. The antioxidant activation of Nrf2 reduced etoposide-mediated DNA fragmentation and promoted cell survival in PKC-delta(+/+) but not in PKC-delta(-/-) cells. These data together demonstrate that both modification of INrf2C151 and PKC-delta-mediated phosphorylation of Nrf2S40 play crucial roles in Nrf2 release from INrf2, antioxidant induction of defensive gene expression, promoting cell survival, and increasing drug resistance.

Nrf2:INrf2 (Keap1) signaling in oxidative stress.

Nrf2:INrf2 (Keap1) are cellular sensors of chemical- and radiation-induced oxidative and electrophilic stress. Nrf2 is a nuclear transcription factor that controls the expression and coordinated induction of a battery of defensive genes encoding detoxifying enzymes and antioxidant proteins. This is a mechanism of critical importance for cellular protection and cell survival. Nrf2 is retained in the cytoplasm by an inhibitor, INrf2 which functions as an adapter for Cul3/Rbx1-mediated degradation of Nrf2. In response to oxidative/electrophilic stress, Nrf2 is switched on and then off by distinct early and delayed mechanisms. Oxidative/electrophilic modification of INrf2 cysteine 151 and/or protein kinase C phosphorylation of Nrf2 serine 40 results in the escape or release of Nrf2 from INrf2. Nrf2 is stabilized and translocates to the nucleus, forms heterodimers with unknown proteins, and binds the antioxidant response element, which leads to coordinated activation of gene expression. It takes less than 15 min from the time of exposure to switch on nuclear import of Nrf2. This is followed by activation of a delayed mechanism that controls the switching off of Nrf2 activation of gene expression. GSK3beta phosphorylates Fyn at an unknown threonine residue(s), leading to the nuclear localization of Fyn. Fyn phosphorylates Nrf2 tyrosine 568, resulting in the nuclear export of Nrf2, binding with INrf2, and degradation of Nrf2. The switching on and off of Nrf2 protects cells against free radical damage, prevents apoptosis, and promotes cell survival.