Groundwater quality appraisal and zone mapping for agriculture utilities in Wadi Fatima, Saudi Arabia using water quality indices, boron and trace metals.

Groundwater quality in Wadi Fatimah is evaluated and demarcated for agriculture utilities using comprehensive approaches namely, international standards, agricultural water quality (AWQ) indices, irrigation water quality index (IWQI), and trace metals. Groundwater samples were collected (n = 59) and analysed for EC, pH, major and minor ions and trace metals. According to FAO recommendations, 42% of samples (EC > 3000 µS/cm) are inappropriate for agricultural uses. AWQ indices including salinity hazard, Kelly's ratio and Na% show that 50%, 19% and 37% of samples, respectively, are unsuitable for agricultural uses. USSL classification reveals that groundwater is preferable only for high-permeability soils and salt-tolerant crops. IWQI suggests that 88% of samples are moderately usable for agriculture. The interrelationship between water salinity and crop yield justified that 73%, 59%, 51% and 25% of samples are desirable to yield 90% in date palm trees, sorghum, rice and citrus fruits, respectively. Groundwater is appropriate for date palm trees except in downstream regions. Boron concentration suggests that 52%, 81% and 92% of samples are suitable for sensitive, semi-tolerant and tolerant crops, respectively. Groundwater in the central part (suitable for sensitive crops), central and upstream regions (semi-tolerant crops) and all regions except downstream (tolerant crops) are suitable for cultivation. Trace metals contents illustrate that 36%, 34%, 22%, 8%, 5% and 100% of samples are inappropriate for agriculture due to high concentrations of Cr, Cu, Ni, V, Mn and Mo, respectively in the groundwater. Further, AWQ indices, IWQI, USSL classifications and trace metals ensure that groundwater in the downstream, and a few pockets in the upstream are unfit for agricultural uses. This study recommends that groundwater in this basin is more suitable for tolerant crops (ie. date palm, sorghum) followed by semi-tolerant and sensitive crops.

Appraisal of groundwater quality and health risk in the Yalamlam basin, Saudi Arabia.

Groundwater quality in Yalamlam basin, Saudi Arabia, was appraised for drinking, irrigation, livestock and poultry applications by international standards, drinking water quality index (DWQI), irrigation water quality (IWQ) parameters, and irrigation water quality index (IWQI) calculations. Potential non-carcinogenic health risks due to high NO3- and F- water were assessed for various age groups using the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) models. Groundwater samples (n = 40) were analyzed for pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and major and minor constituents. The average total dissolved solids (TDS), EC, and total hardness (TH) in the groundwater are 3478 µS/cm, 1739 mg/l, and 1240 mg/l, respectively. High salinity, TH, NO3-, and F- in this aquifer restrict the usage of groundwater for drinking. DWQI values suggest that only 47.5% of samples are potable. According to USEPA recommendation, 72.5%, 80%, and 100% of samples for NO3- and 22.5%, 32.5%, and 40% of samples for F- surpassed the limit (HQoral > 1) for adults, children, and infants, respectively, which creates non-carcinogenic health hazards to the respective age groups. The total hazard index is greater than one in 75%, 87.5%, and 100% of samples computed for adults, children, and infants, respectively. Due to high salinity, 53% of samples are not pertinent for irrigation. USSL classification reveals that groundwater samples in the study site are recommended only for salt-tolerant crops and coarse-textured high permeability soil. In this study, IWQI is reclassified using salinity, which suggests that 68% of samples are moderately suitable for irrigation. Based on EC alone, 83% are desirable for livestock and poultry uses whereas integration of multiple parameters with EC indicates that only 53% are acceptable for all kinds of livestock and poultry uses in the study site. Spatial distribution of major and minor ions, DWQI, HQoral, and IWQI imply that groundwater quality is degraded from upstream to downstream. High salinity groundwater in the downstream wells is unsuitable for any application, which needs a proper treatment before use. Spatial maps created for various parameters are useful for identifying the good quality groundwater zone for groundwater development potential for various stakeholders.

Application of water quality indices and health risk models in the arid coastal aquifer, Southern Saudi Arabia.

A systematic study was performed in the arid coastal aquifer to evaluate groundwater quality using drinking water quality indices (DWQI) and health risk assessment models in southern Saudi Arabia. Groundwater samples were collected (n = 80) and analysed for major and minor ions. Results suggest that 85% of wells are unsuitable for drinking due to high salinity and hardness. Likewise, high NO3- and F- are encountered in 51% and 46% of wells, respectively. High salinity, Cl- and SO42- are noticed in the coastal wells, which are derived from saline sources, evaporation and anthropogenic activities. High NO3- is originated from anthropogenic sources and the nitrification process. Recharge of wastewater with high NO3- is mixed with high salinity groundwater in this shallow aquifer. DWQI indicates that 66% of samples are poor to unsuitable classes. Wells with poor quality groundwater existed in the coastal belt and water quality is degraded while moving from upstream to downstream. The average values of hazard quotient (HQoral, NO3-, F-) and total hazard index (THI) ensured that highly vulnerable groups are in the order of infants > children > adults. In the study region, the THI are > 1 in 75% (adults), 89% (children) and 94% (infants) of samples, respectively. The spatial distribution of HQoral reveals that groundwater in the coastal and southern regions is not advisable for direct oral ingestion, which causes serious non-carcinogenic health risk to inhabitants. Groundwater in these regions needs proper treatment to remove the contaminants before use.

Trace metals pollution, distribution and associated health risks in the arid coastal aquifer, Hada Al-Sham and its vicinities, Saudi Arabia.

Trace metals pollution, distribution and associated health risk were evaluated in the arid coastal aquifer, Hada Al-Sham, Western Saudi Arabia using an integrated approach namely heavy metal pollution index (HPI), contamination index (Cd), health risk assessment (HRA) model and multivariate statistical analysis. Groundwater samples (n = 47) were analysed for EC, pH, TDS, Ag, Al, B, Ba, Co, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mo, Ni, Pb, V and Zn. Groundwater is mostly alkaline (72%) with high salinity (TDS >1500 mg/l, 77%). Average trace metals concentrations are in the dominance order of B > Cu > Al > Mo > Pb > V > Ba > Zn > Ni > Cr > Fe > Ag. Groundwater (100% wells) is unsafe for drinking based on V, Mo, Al concentrations followed by the Pb (96%), B (91%), Ni (72%), Cr (23%), Cu (17%) and Ag (6%), which exceeded the WHO and USEPA prescribed limits. Results of HPI and Cd also implied the high contamination and enhanced level of metals in the groundwater. Chronic daily intake (CDIoral), hazard quotient (HQ) and total hazard quotient (THQ) were employed for health risk assessment. HQ values reveal that 100% (Al, Mo), 85% (Cu), 21% (B), 13% (Cr) and 6% (Pb) of samples exceeded the recommended limit (>1), which can cause an adverse health risk to adult and children. Pearson correlation, principal components analyses, and Hierarchical cluster analysis justified that aluminium silicates weathering and Fe oxides/hydroxides dissolution (Pb, Cr, Ni, Fe, Ag, Al, Mo and V), evaporation, anthropogenic input (Cu and B) and dissolution of carbonate and sulphate minerals (Ba and Zn) controlled the water chemistry in this aquifer. This study recommends a proper treatment of the groundwater to be safe for various uses. The comprehensive approach, employed here, is applicable to any arid aquifers worldwide.

Assessment of groundwater quality and associated health risk in the arid environment, Western Saudi Arabia.

Groundwater quality and associated health risk in the arid environment, Rabigh basin, Western Saudi Arabia, was assessed using an integrated approach namely groundwater suitability zone (GWSZ) maps, drinking water quality index (DWQI), irrigation water quality (IWQ) parameters, irrigation water quality index (IWQI), chronic daily index (CDI), and hazard quotient (HQ). Groundwater samples were collected (n = 50) and analysed. Groundwater is alkaline (80%), fresh to brackish, and hard to very hard, and 78% of samples exceeded the international drinking water safe limit. The DWQI indicates that groundwater samples are excellent (24%), good (24%), poor (20%), very poor (10%), and unsuitable (22%) classes for drinking use. Total HQ (HQoral F- + HQoral NO3-) indicated that 68%, 80%, and 72% of samples express non-carcinogenic health threat to adult, children, and infant, respectively, in the study region. IWQ parameters, namely, EC, sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), Kelly's ratio (KR), sodium percentage (Na%), permeability index (PI), and magnesium hazard (MH), suggest that 72%, 66%, 64%, 98%, and 92% of samples have SAR < 6, KR < 1, MH < 50, PI > 25%, and Na% < 60%, respectively, which are suitable for irrigation. USSL classification implies that groundwater is suitable only for salt-tolerant crops and high permeability soil. IWQI values suggest that groundwater in 12%, 82%, and 6% of wells are low, medium, and highly suitable, respectively, for irrigation. Furthermore, only 42% of samples are recommended for livestock uses due to high F- (> 2). GWSZ maps, DWQI, and IWQI imply that groundwater in the upstream region is suitable whereas groundwater in the downstream is not recommended for any uses. Hence, this study recommended proper groundwater augmentation methods to reduce the salinity and improve the water quality in the shallow aquifer in the arid environment. The GWSZ, DWQI, and IWQI maps will aid to identify the suitable zones for groundwater development and sustainable management.